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A NEW WORLD 


\BY” 


KENNETH MACLEN NAN 


SECRETARY OF THE CONFERENCE OF MISSIONARY SOCIETIES 


GENERAL SECRETARY OF THE UNITED COUNCIL 
FOR MISSIONARY EDUCATION, LONDON 


MISSIONARY EDUCATION MOVEMENT 
OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA 
NEW YORK 
1925 


CoPyYRIGHT, 1925, BY 
MISSIONARY EDUCATION MovEMENT 
OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA 


Printed in the United States of America 


TO 
MY WIFE 
THIS BOOK 
1S: 
DEDICATED 


Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2022 with funding from — 
Princeton Theological Seminary Library 


https://archive.org/details/costofnewworld0Omacl 


PUBLISHER’S NOTE 


WHEN the World Missionary Conference met in 
Edinburgh in 1910, Kenneth Maclennan was practis- 
ing law in that city. He was a leader in the Laymen’s 
Missionary Movement among the Scottish churches and 
following the Conference was called from his business 
career to the service of the interdenominational agen- 
cies of the British missionary societies. He was active 
in developing the work of the United Council for Mis- 
sionary Education and he has remained as its General 
Secretary along with his other duties. During the 
World War Mr. Maclennan occupied a highly respon- 
sible post in the British Ministry of Munitions and 
was asked to continue in government service for some 
time after the War. He soon returned to his work in 
connection with the world enterprise of the Church, 
however, and has since become the Secretary of the 
Conference of Missionary Societies in Great Britain 
and Ireland with headquarters in London. 

American readers of The Cost of a New World 
will readily understand that the book has some inci- 
dental references applying primarily to Great Britain 
and the British Empire. It has not seemed desirable 
on that account to make any essential modification of 
the text in the American edition. The book as a whole 
presents a world situation that men of good-will in 
every land must face together and it 1s an advantage 
to have for common study throughout the English- 
speaking nations such a broad treatment of the prob- 


lems as Mr. Maclennan has given. 
Vv 


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Went 
Wael 


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PREFACE 


THE object of this book is to face the problems sug- 
gested by the strange and perplexing fact that there 
could take place almost simultaneously a World Mis- 
sionary Conference and a World War. These events 
were the climax of two streams in the history of the 
modern world. One was the expansion of Christian- 
ity, and the other an ever-increasing material develop- 
ment practically untouched by ‘spiritual influences. 
The problems of the world today are just those of the 
pre-war world. The only difference is that they have 
to be faced and solved against a new background. It 
seems of urgent importance therefore that, in the light 
of pre-war history, fresh consideration should be given 
to the world movements of today in order to discover 
what are the vital forces in deadly grips in these move- 
ments, what are the real issues, and what is the rele- 
vancy of Jesus Christ to them all. 

This volume accordingly offers a brief survey of the 
material forces at work in the pre-war world, discusses 
some current world movements, e.g., the growth of 
national and racial consciousness, the seething mind 
of youth, the industrialization of the Orient, the open- 
ing of Africa and the out-reach everywhere after edu- 
cation, and seeks to understand the real conflict in all 
these movements and the relevancy of Christianity to 
them. : 

The problems of our time throw upon the new 
generation an exceptionally heavy burden. The book 


is primarily written for them, and the author will be 
Vil 


Vill PREFACE 


content if the volume in any way helps them in facing 
their overwhelming task. 

The writer is alone responsible for the opinions 
expressed, but he desires to acknowledge invaluable 
help unsparingly given by various members of the 
United Council for Missionary Education, and a num- 
ber of other friends too numerous to mention. If 
exception may be made, he would like to express 
thanks for help and constructive criticism on the parts 
of the book dealing with Africa and the Far East re- 
ceived from Dr. Kwegyir Aggrey of Prince of Wales 
College, Achimota, Gold Coast, Rev. T. Kagawa of 
Tokyo, Miss Margaret Burton of New York, Miss 
Agatha Harrison of the Y.W.C.A. (who, until she 
left China in February, 1924, was a member of the 
Child Labor Commission appointed by the Shanghai 
Municipal Council), Dr. Henry T. Hodgkin, Secretary 
of the National Christian Council of China, and Dr. 
Harold Balme, President of Shantung University. 

One more acknowledgment must be made. I offer 
to my colleague, Miss A. E. Cautley, Editorial Secre- 
tary of the United Council for Missionary Education, 
my deep gratitude for the untiring assistance she has 
given on the book and for seeing it through the press. 


KENNETH MACLENNAN 


Lonnon, 30th September, 1925. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER I 
THE PrRE-WAR WoRLD ; ; X 


Introductory: Leadership passing to new generation 
—Roots of present distress in pre-war world— 
Limited expansion of Christianity—Four move- 
ments contributing to making of modern world. 

I. Expansion of Europe—Early colonial empire—Growth 
of British colonies—Later European colonial em- 
pires—Sense of Christian responsibility lacking. 

II. Rise of modern democracy—Rousseau—French Rev- 
olution—New watchwords and reactions—Antag- 
onisms between Church and democracy—Is there 
a necessary fundamental quarrel ? 

III. Industrial Revolution—Features—Rise of modern 
capitalism—Mushroom industrial towns—Imper- 
sonal relations of employer and employed—In- 
dustrial war—Development greatly accelerated— 
Relation to religion. 

IV. Evangelical Revival—John Wesley—William Carey 
—Geographical conception of expansion of Chris- 
tianity—A World Missionary Conference and a 
World War—Christian stream isolated in world’s 
life—New conception required. 


gt 


tek Wet Uma dodall 


New FAcTors IN THE WoORLD’s LIFE ) it A 


Introductory 
I. Growth of nationality—Formerly confined to Europe 
—Now world-wide—Nationalism and Christianity. 
II. Internationalism—The Hague—Peace Conference— 
League of Nations—Threatened by narrow nation- 
alism. 
ix 


PAGE 


15 


37 


x CONTENTS 


III. Race problem—European expansion and domina- 
tion—Motive self-interest—Emergence of Japan— 
Race consciousness—Accelerated by World War 
—Types of race relationships—Variety of conse- 
quent problems—Various attitudes to problem— 
Christian conception of race. 

IV. Seething mind of youth— Universal — Common 
features—Potential power—Christianity and youth. 


OS atk OW Sy EE 


THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF THE ORIENT. . , 


Introductory 
I. Beginning of modern trade between East and West— 
East India Company — China — Japan — Swift 
growth—Shipping—Railways. 
II. Accelerated by natural resources—Textiles—Coal— 
Iron, etc-—Rapidity of recent development. 

III. Consequent social changes—Modern factory system 
—Exploitation—Child labor—Shanghai cotton mills 
—Working mothers and child mortality—Reactions 
of industry in West and Fast. 

IV. Legislation—Treaty of Versailles—India Factory Act 
—Japan National Factory Law—China—Right of 
combination—Strikes—Fight against exploitation. 

V. Christianity and economic development—Problem 
facing missionaries. 


CHAR TER ELNV: 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA . A ! i! f le 


Introductory 
I. Early Portuguese adventurers—English—Dutch— 
French—Road to the interior of Africa closed by 
unhealthy coastal belt. 
II. Rise of West African slave-trade with America— 
Britain’s dominant share—Abolition—East African 
Arab slave-trade—Lessons. 
ITI. Recent rapid opening of Africa—Unhealthy climate 
conquered—Uplands of the interior—Partition— 
Swift changes—New life—Directed by white men. 


PAGE 


63 


87 


LV. 
V. 


Vi. 


VII. 
VIII. 


THE 


ik 


CONTENTS 


Africa an annex of Europe—Main problems—Lack 
of data for solving. 

Land—Early tribal system—White settlement—Pro- 
tectorates — Reserves — Land ownership— Attitude 
toward native cultivation of soil. 

Labor—Sparse population—Unequal to potential de- 
velopment—Labor supply—Policy in East Africa 
—Labor Color Bar in South African Union. 

Taxes—Hut tax—What native gets in return. 

Duty of Government—Principle of Trusteeship— 
Black and white cooperation. 


COTTER Uy 


WorRLD AT SCHOOL . } ri ite : M 


Introductory: World learning to read—Education 
biggest factor in human progress—A spiritual en- 
terprise—Not a matter of organization or system. 

Cultural penetration of Western education—China— 
Mission schools—Rise of national system—Prob- 
lems of dual system—China’s distrust of Western 
penetration—Anti-Christian feeling—Future of 
Mission schools. 

Education and national aspirations—India—National 
aspirations call for educated people—Education 
top-heavy—Unbalanced university education—Edu- 
cation of women—Primary education—Small in 
scope and wrong in type. 

Christianity and national secular systems of educa- 
tion—Japan—Strong national system—Secular— 
Christian schools—Place and function. 


. Education and primitive peoples—Africa—Type 


required—Its past failure—Inadequacy—-New Govy- 
ernment policy—Education for life concern of 
Governments and Missions. 

Education wider than schoolsk—Women and educa- 
tion—Oriental and African students in Western 
colleges—Education and national policy—World 
leadership being made in the schools—Pulling to- 
gether—The new spirit. 3 


PAGE 


1I2 


Xil CONTENTS 
CHAPTER VI 
Tue BreAK-uP oF PAN-ISLAM . : j ‘ é 
Introductory: Parable of Great Mosque of Damascus 
—Age-long unity of Islam. 

I. Breakdown of unity—Social and political causes— 
Penetration of the West—Great War—Cinema— 
Motor cars—Railways—Literature—Education of 
women. 

II. Unity of spiritual and temporal power in person of 
Caliph—Sultan for long Sultan-Caliph—Deposed 
by Turkish Republic. 

III. Reactions—Pan-Islam broken—Caliphate abolished. 

IV. Problem of Islam to maintain unity through 


Caliphate—Opportunity of Christianity. 


CHAPTER RV IT 


Tue ReaL CONFLICT , : : ; : ‘ a 


uf 


Il. 


Att, 


LY. 


Introductory: The deeper meaning of things. 

World Missionary Conference and World War each 
a climax of history—The war a clash of rivalries 
—Expansion of Christianity isolated—Opposing 
influences—Conflict for mastery between material 
and spiritual. 

Conflict seen in national and international move- 
ments—In industry—In race relations—In the new 
Africa—In education—In divided democracy. 

Solidarity of human society—Reactions of human 
activities world-wide. 

Spiritual and material both stronger than ever before 
—Both in strong opposition—Is there a better 
way ?—Necessity for giving full weight to spiritual 
and moral values in all life—True unity of spirit- 
ual and material. 


153 


CONTENTS 
CHARTER Vall 


THE LEADER IN THE CONFLICT . : ‘ 


Introductory: Is there a religion that can control 
the material side of life?—Inadequacy of great 
non-Christian religions—Christianity’s claim— 
Rests on Jesus. 

Jesus a Teacher and a Life—New view of God— 
New attitude to men—Was His teaching a phase in 
history of religion?—Was He a mere dreamer ? 


. The faith of Jesus in God and man—Man’s response 


—The revolution in the mind of man. 


. Apparent first result failure—The Cross—Turned to 


a creative force—The early Church—The way of 
the Cross. 

Can corporate groups act in a Christian way— 
Wanted, directed spiritual outlook. 

Highest corporate life must rest on individual life— 
The hindering sins of today—The bearing of 
teaching of Jesus on these. 


. An example of today’s problems—Public opinion— 


The influence of the press—Drifting with public 
opinion—Helping to make it—Its power. 


VII. No neutrality in conflict between material and 
spiritual—Our individual influence—Our national 
influence—Fight means the Cross—Christ the 
Leader and the Victor—Adventure for Him. 

APPENDIX 


Summary of Recommendations of the Commission 
appointed by the Municipal Council of Shanghai 
to inquire into the conditions of child labor in 
Shanghai and the vicinity. 


INDEX e ’ a e 4 a e e 


X1ll 


PAGE 
172 


186 





THE COST 
OF A NEW WORLD 


CHAPTER I 
THE PRE-WAR WORLD 


THE leadership of mankind is soon to pass to a genera- 
tion of men and women who know only the world of 
the War days and after. When Armageddon broke 
out their careless, happy laughter filled every school 
playground; now grown to manhood and womanhood 
they are faced with a troubled world in desperate need. 
To them it seems that the problems of the time are of 
an entirely new order created by the War. But in 
reality the problems are just of the kind which de- 
manded solution before the War. ‘The difference is 
that they have to be solved against an entirely new 
background. The only background of the new genera- 
tion is the world that has emerged from the War. ‘To 
them the old world of 1914 is unknown, or is at most 
only a confused memory of tender years; to all those 
who come after it will not be even that. 

Indeed, man so quickly adjusts himself to new en- 
vironment that to many older folk the pre-war world 
seems but a dim memory of the distant past. The 
shattering effects of the War are such a grim reality, 
and the acute needs left in its train are so urgent, that 
the mind of many of the older generation also is filled 
only with the post-war world. 

The War dramatically changed the face of the 

I5 


16 THE: COST (ORVA NEW WORKED 


world. The outlook of men everywhere has shifted 
and their energies have taken a new bent. The whole 
social fabric is in solution. Statesmen are busy with 
world reconstruction, commerce and industry are fac- 
ing new and perplexing problems, cruel economic dis- 
tress on a world scale is baffling mankind, and the ex- 
pansion of the nations of the West has created acute 
inter-racial and international problems. It is hardly 
to be expected that the Church can pass through the 
fires of such a time without feeling the challenge of 
the changed world. 

The roots of the present world-wide distress, how- 
ever, do not lie in the War but in the kind of world in 
which such a catastrophe was possible, and some un- 
derstanding of that world seems necessary to a right 
appreciation of the situation confronting those who 
today would build the city of God. It will be useful, 
therefore, to look afresh at the expansion of Chris- 
tianity in the days before 1914. 

For one reason or another that movement took lim- 
ited direction. The grip of religion on the mind of 
men was unequal to the task of making the Christian 
spirit effective in human society. This may partly be 
due to the fact that the modern expansion of Chris- 
tianity was greatly stimulated by geographical dis- 
coveries. As the big blank spaces on the old maps 
were filled up, the Christian impulse was stirred to 
send the gospel to the newly discovered regions. The 
missionary in turn became explorer and discoverer ; 
geography and missions became closely bound up. The 
trail of the explorer became “a new pathway for 
Christianity.” For long years the small missionary 


THE PRE-WAR WORLD 17 


forces of the Church were sadly inadequate even to a 
mere geographical occupation of the world, and it was 
only natural that geographical occupation should be 
emphasized as the goal of the missionary enterprise. 
“The whole wide world” was the bugle-call of missions. 

In more recent years it became increasingly evident 
that the establishment of the Kingdom of God in the 
world demanded a fresh estimate of the Christian 
forces and a new kind of missionary occupation. 
Great streams of human activity had burst forth in 
Christendom and reached out into the remotest cor- 
ners of the earth as allies or enemies of the mission- 
ary cause, while the impact of western ideas on Africa 
and the hoary Orient offered great new regions of men- 
tal and material development for Christian occupation. 
The missionary passion largely ignored the heathen 
heart at home, and the Church is even now waking 
up but slowly to the fact that all these streams of out- 
going life from the homeland profoundly affect its task 
in the mission field, and that for good or evil the na- 
tion is really a missionary society. 

History always has its lessons for posterity, and if 
we of the present generation would face the new prob- 
lems aright we ought to study carefully the experience 
of the past that we may ever build the better. The 
modern expansion of Christianity is only part of the 
dramatic evolution of the last hundred and fifty years. 
The second half of the eighteenth century witnessed 
the beginning of several movements from which issued 
those great streams of new life which have given us 
the modern world. Four of these movements were 
peculiarly destined to turn the current of history into 


18 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


fresh channels—the expansion of Europe, the birth 
of modern democracy in the French Revolution, the 
Industrial Revolution, and the Evangelical Revival. 
All of these gave new direction to the trek of the spirit 
of man. 


I 


The early expansion of modern European civiliza- 
tion over the extra-European world was due in the 
first instance to the enterprise of Spain and Portugal, 
and later to that of Holland, France, and Great Brit- 
ain. Portugal by and by fell under the sway of Spain, 
and the defeat, soon thereafter, of the Great Armada 
brought the supremacy of Spain to an end. She 
ceased to count in the expansion of Europe, and her 
great dominion is now a thing of the past. From the 
days of the Armada the rivalry was between the new 
sea-rovers, English, French, and Dutch. Early leader- 
ship fell to the Dutch, then finally to Britain, after a 
long and fierce struggle with France. 

Through the activities of its well-known trading 
Company to the East Indies, Holland acquired in that 
early struggle important colonies in the Malay Archi-° 
pelago, South Africa, and Ceylon, while in North 
America the Dutch founded New York and established 
colonies along the Hudson River, and in South Amer- 
ica they founded Dutch Guiana. Indeed, but for the 
stronger lure of the Indies, Holland might have occu- 
pied Australia and New Zealand, both of which her 
intrepid explorers brought to the notice of Europe. 


THE PRE-WAR WORLD 19 


The colonial empire of Holland has had some vicissi- 
tudes and is now represented by Dutch Guiana, and the 
small islands of Curacao, Bonaire, etc. in the West In- 
dies, and by extensive territories in the East Indies 
where she has accepted responsibility for the govern- 
ment of fifty million Asiatics, 

Queen Elizabeth was only four years dead when the 
first English colony was founded in Virginia. Soon 
thereafter the men of the Mayflower, the forerunners 
of the American Commonwealth, landed at New 
Plymouth on 11th November, 1620, a date which 
marked “the dawn of a new day for freedom in all 
the world.” But not till a hundred and thirty years 
later were the foundations laid of that wonderful ex- 
pansion of the Empire through which the restless en- 
ergy of the British people brought them great new re- 
sponsibilities in all parts of the world, responsibilities 
which were only gradually perceived and are not even 
now fully realized. 

For long France and Britain were keen rivals in 
colonial expansion, but the Seven Years’ War dramat- 
ically ended that rivalry in India and North America. 
An obscure English clerk in the service of the East 
India Company, later to become Lord Clive, had been 
dreaming for some years of a British India. Clive 
had gradually destroyed French influence in Southern 
India; in 1757 his victory at Plassey made the East 
India Company the real masters of Bengal in the north, 
and led to British dominion over the whole of India. 

The beginning of British dominion in Canada is 
more romantic. The mind likes to dwell on the epic 


20 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


story of Wolfe’s conquest of Quebec. The imagina- 
tion is stirred by the tale of how he read to his staff, 
during the midnight sail up the St. Lawrence, Gray’s 
“ Elegy ” (the authorship of which he would have pre- 
ferred to the honor of taking Quebec), by the death 
next day of the opposing generals on the Heights of 
Abraham, and by the simple memorial obelisk with the 
names “ Wolfe” and “ Montcalm” on either side. 
The capture of Quebec by Wolfe in 1759 made Britain 
mistress of Canada. 

These events in India and North America marked 
the end of the first colonial empire of France and left 
Britain alone to carry on European expansion. The 
creation of the French later colonial system and the 
rise of those of Italy, Russia, Germany, and the United 
States belong to more recent years. From the middle 
of the eighteenth century till far on in the nineteenth 
the expansion of Europe was practically the expansion 
of England. That enterprise proceeded haphazard. An 
incidental temporary alliance between Napoleon and 
Holland led to Britain’s capture (1806) of Cape Col- 
ony, and its subsequent purchase; the necessity for a 
dumping-ground for convicts led to the first settlement 
in Australia; quarrels between British traders and set- 
tlers and the Maori led to the annexation of New 
Zealand in 1839; while the accidental march of events 
rather than any deliberate intention added to the Em- 
pire great territories in Equatorial Africa. 

“ England had, almost by a series of accidents, be- 
come ae center of an Empire.” * Expansion devel- 
oped in many ways and does not seem to have been 

1 Ramsay Muir, The Expansion of Europe, p. 40. 


THE PRE-WAR WORLD 21 


directed by any definite policy: it was carried on by 
restless adventurous spirits, almost without guidance 
from home. But British ideals were in the main its 
guide. 

The later development of the other European co- 
lonial empires, though very important, must be passed 
Over in a single paragraph. The colonial expansion 
of Holland has been briefly referred to above (p. 18). 
Before the middle of the nineteenth century France 
laid the foundations of her new huge colonial system 
in North Africa, and added later French Congo, 
Cochin-China, New Caledonia, and Madagascar. Por- 
tugal mapped out large African territories in Mozam- 
bique and Angola; Russia by steadfast penetration ex- 
tended her rule over Central Asia and Siberia. Italy 
sought for expansion in North Africa and Somaliland; 
and, in the partition of Africa, Germany acquired an 
outlet in Togo, Cameroons, Tanganyika, and German 
South-West Africa. Within the last fifty years the 
new competition for world control has resulted in the 
extension of European domination to all the politically 
unoccupied parts of the earth’s surface and intrusion 
on many of the helpless older civilizations. At the be- 
ginning of the present century the United States of 
America entered on colonial responsibility in the Philip- 
pines and other islands of the Pacific, and in the West 
Indies. 

Such a development of influence over other peoples 
was bound to raise in the course of years the question 
“whether the spirit in which this world-supremacy of 
Europe was to be wielded should be the spirit of trus- 
teeship on behalf of civilization; or whether it was to 


22 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


be the old, brutal, and sterile spirit of mere domination 
for its own sake.” * 

The sense of Christian responsibility was singularly 
defective in the empire-builders of the modern world. 
Even England had scant regard either for religion or 
humanity. The expansion of Christianity was by no 
means concurrent with the expansion of Europe. 
“Along the African coast the man stealer, not the 
missionary, was the representative for generations of 
British interest in the native.’* Slavery was not 
merely a thing of private enterprise; the slave-trade 
between Africa and North America was actually one 
of the prizes of the Marlborough victories guaranteed 
to England by international treaty.* The conception 
of England as a mother of nations had not then been 
born; exploitation went on merrily. The rigid view 
that our colonies existed for our benefit split the Em- 
pire and gave rise to the American Commonwealth. 
““Tt was not the Stamp Act nor the repeal of the Stamp 
Act,” says one historian, “that brought this about: it 
was that baleful spirit of commerce that wished to gov- 
ern great nations on the maxims of the counter.”’ The 
Kast India Company was able for many years with 
all the power of the British Government behind it to 
exclude Christian missionaries from its territories. 
With the passing years humanitarian practise grew, 
and Christian ideals developed, but there was always 
a conflict, in which the spirit of evil was too often in 
the ascendant. Commercial penetration and develop- 


1 Ramsay Muir, The Expansion of Europe, p. 143. 

2 History of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, Vol. I, 
p. 24. 

8 The Treaty of Utrecht, 1713. 


THE PRE-WAR WORLD 23 


ment of natural resources, telegraph lines, roads and 
harbors do not always mean progress in the ideal of 
trusteeship. They have been and may still be the chan- 
nels of exploitation; they always create new problems. 
The old tribal customs whereby primitive society was 
bound together are invariably weakened—if they do 
not break down—when they come into contact with 
European civilization, and primitive peoples have to 
be helped to adjust the old social order to the new. 
The problem is not fully solved anywhere, but a sign © 
of the times is the increasing acceptance of the doc- 
trine of trusteeship evidenced by the appointment by 
the Colonial Secretary of a Committee on East Africa 
to consider among other things “ the provision of ser- 
vices directed to their [the natives’] moral and ma- 
terial improvement; ’’ and the setting up by the Crown 
Colony Governments in Africa of a strong Advisory 
Committee on native education in British Tropical 
African Dependencies. 

Even righteous rule is no longer enough. ‘ Re- 
ligion,’ wrote Professor Seeley, “is the great state- 
building principle, . . . since the Church (so at least 
I hold) is the soul of the State; and if you find a state 
which is not also in some sense a Church, you find a 
state which is not long for this world.” 


I] 


All visitors to Geneva visit Rousseau’s Isle, where, 
while Wolfe was taking Quebec and Clive was winning 
India, a young Frenchman was maturing a new phi- 
losophy of “ the sovereignty of the general will,” which 


24 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


set agoing another great stream of life in the modern 
world. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the prophet of the 
French Revolution, issued his Contrat Social to a star- 
tled world in 1762. It was instantly recognized as 
revolutionary, was condemned by the University of 
Paris and burned by the common hangman a year 
later as “reckless, scandalous, impious and calculated 
to destroy the Christian religion and all government.” 
To many the French Revolution seems only a series of 
bloody and dramatic events; it was in reality a perma- 
nent European upheaval. It was “a conquest in the 
spheres of thought, society, and politics, effected by a 
people over the old systems of authority, class privi- 
lege, and absolute rule.’’* Great new political ideas 
suddenly burst on the mind of a world in which gov- 
erning policies centered round the fortunes of royal 
houses and the strife between dynasties, and in which 
the efforts of statesmen were concentrated on alliances 
designed to maintain a balance of power. 

The thunderclap of 1789 sounded the doom of the 
old systems of government in Europe. In France, 
from the brilliant pens of Voltaire and Rousseau, there 
poured forth with extraordinary charm and lucidity 
new conceptions of society, which were flashed from 
end to end of Europe. The Contrat Social was a veri- 
table gospel of “the sovereignty of the general will,” 
and the great new words Liperty, Equatity, FRa- 
TERNITY, became the watchword of the new movement. 
Events were soon to show that, in the words of Lord 
Acton, ‘Ideas are the cause and not the result of 


1J. Holland Rose, The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, 1789- 
161 5.°Dsi1. 


THE PRE-WAR WORLD 25 


public events.” For a time it seemed as if the Revolu- 
tion only succeeded in setting up a “ reign of terror ”’ 
in France, and in threatening the fabric of govern- 
ment everywhere. Practically all Europe was hostile, 
and there was little expectation that chaotic France 
could maintain herself in face of a continent arrayed 
against her. But “the heir to the Revolution” was 
already on the horizon; the little Corsican corporal 
was dreaming of a European States-General.- The ka- 
leidoscopic change of the vision from States-General to 
masterful Empire only made a new highway for the 
revolutionary doctrines. The rise of the Napoleonic 
despotism in no way checked the Revolution; it car- 
ried its seeds to every country in Europe. The whole 
continent was rotten-ripe for change, and the decay 
everywhere of the old order had prepared the way for 
a devastating upheaval. The real strength of the new 
movement was that it was an upheaval of the mind of 
man, an intellectual ferment which bequeathed its fer- 
vent doctrines to posterity. The new ideas were too 
strong for any despotism to destroy. The smashing 
up of the old monarchies by Napoleon was just such 
a clearing of the ground of effete litter as gave room 
to the new ideas to germinate everywhere. After the 
reactions of the terrible early years, the Revolution 
hibernated for a period, but lived on. The questions 
it raised would not sleep; after half a century it broke 
out afresh everywhere, and Europe was again shaken 
to its foundation. The doctrine of the sovereignty of 
the general will is still loudly proclaimed in national 
and international affairs. 

In England, after some hesitation, the forces of 


26 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


Church and State were arrayed with the powers of 
Central Europe against revolutionary France, as again 
and again the movement burst through all control and 
issued in red riot and massacre. It is hardly strange 
that Christian men in England regarded the situation 
with horror as they viewed what, at close range, seemed 
appalling moral dissolution and the ruin of stable so- 
ciety through fanaticism riding on uncontrolled and 
reckless despotism. 

Everywhere antagonism sprang up between the 
Church and the Revolution. The incident illustrates 
a situation which has arisen again and again in his- 
tory. The Church has too often been opposed to new 
movements of thought and to anything that seemed to 
affect the social fabric, from considerations relating to 
transient and superficial events, and not by any process 
of reason, or because of the positive vitality of its life 
or a fresh application of the principles of Jesus. This 
attitude often leads to an evil reaction—the dechris- 
tianization of many new movements which are really 
in the interest of progress, and in which the powerful 
influence of religion has for a time at least been lost 
with disastrous results. 

“Was there a necessary and fundamental quarrel 
between the doctrines of the Revolution and those of 
the Catholic Church?” asks Hilaire Belloc.*. A survey 
of the history of the last hundred years undoubtedly 
raises the question of what has been and what is the 
relation of religion to the democratic movement in the 
modern world. Is this great stream of modern de- 
mocracy in Christian and non-Christian lands an enemy 

1 The French Revolution, p. 217. 


THE PRE-WAR WORLD 27 


to the expansion of Christianity, or may it be its hand- 
maid? Must it flow on outside that great central 
stream we would fain see become a River of Life to 
a thirsty world? 


Ii 


When the expansion of England was taking on new 
dimensions in the middle of the eighteenth century and 
Rousseau was flashing forth with such brilliance his 
new doctrine of human society, a hard-headed Scots 
boy, meditating deeply over a boiling kettle, conceived 
the idea of harnessing steam to the service of man. 
James Watt’s steam engine (1769) marked the begin- 
ning of still another great stream in the life of the 
modern world. The steam engine is one of the many 
new inventions and improved processes which have 
characterized the unparalleled development of indus- 
try and commerce during the last hundred and fifty 
years. That development covered the whole range of 
industry, first in textiles, then in iron and steel, and, 
combined with the development of steam power, the 
introduction of machine tools, the railway, the steam- 
boat and the electric telegraph, brought about that gen- 
eral and rapid expansion which is well termed “the 
industrial revolution ’—for it was nothing less than 
a revolution, if not in dramatic swiftness, certainly in. 
far-reaching consequences. 

The industrial revolution has served to meet the 
rapidly increasing material needs of growing popula- 
tions, has made available the underground mineral 
wealth of the world, and has given cheap and quick 


28 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


transport. It has stimulated research and created a 
demand for knowledge, it has made accessible in cheap 
form the literature of all the ages, has been the hand- 
maid of science and art, and has vastly promoted 
human comfort. In estimating the influence of this 
stream of life on the spirit of man these things must be 
borne in mind; but supremely, the industrial revolu- 
tion gave to the world a new social and economic order. 

The outstanding feature of this new social and eco- 
nomic order is the rise of the modern capitalist sys- 
tem. Money has undoubtedly become one of the great- 
est forces in the world. It has played a dominating 
part in the history of mankind during the last century 
and a half; it has created a new end for collective 
human energy—the making of profit. It certainly ex- 
ercises political influence: a cynic has described mod- 
ern governments as “ bank clerks.”’ 

Another notable feature of the industrial revolution 
was the mushroom growth of the great industrial 
towns, until now over three fourths of the people of 
Great Britain are housed in urban areas. This crowd- 
ing of population has created bad housing conditions. 
In Scotland nearly half of the population are living in 
one- or two-roomed houses, or to put the facts in an- 
other form, about forty-five per cent of the population 
of Scotland are living more than two toa room. These 
housing conditions are reflected in health: high infant 
mortality and urbanization go together ; in typical cases 
in Lancashire towns one child in every four dies be- 
fore the age of five. Such high mortality implies 
morbidity in those who survive, and while there has 
been a marked improvement in public health in recent 


THE PRE-WAR WORLD 29 


years, the rate of improvement is handicapped by hous- 
ing conditions. The improvement has been the greatest 
among the middle and upper classes; the period which 
made England wealthy did not provide corresponding 
improvement in the conditions of the masses of her 
people. 

A third result of the industrial revolution is that 
on almost the entire industrial plane it has introduced 
impersonal relations between employer and worker, 
creating a sense of unrelated, or even hostile, interest. 
It also makes for separation of class from class, so 
that today every great city presents sharp divisions of 
classes and districts, by a process of imitation down- 
wards, through “ black-coat’’ and artisan, artisan and 
laborer, and laborer and “ casual.”’ 

Industrialism has given to the world war between 
capital and labor. Employers and employed have 
formed opposing camps, and so we have Employers’ 
Associations and Trade Unions. ‘The latter were at 
first illegal, then tolerated, then free, and are now very 
powerful, though less so than just before the War. 
The last century witnessed a long fight for wages, for 
hours, for conditions of work, for liberty to combine, 
and for a share in the control of industry. The Fac- 
tory Acts are a record of struggle to minimize the 
growing evils of industrial life. Antagonism grew 
with the years of struggle. The roots of much of it 
lie in past history, but the full effects of social wrongs 
live on for decades: ‘‘the fathers have eaten sour 
grapes and the children’s teeth are set on edge.” To- 
day the antagonism and bitterness are perhaps accentu- 
ated by a growing demand for a higher standard of 


30 THE: GOST OR VA NEW WORLD 


life in face of stringent economic conditions. Roughly, 
we are at pre-war standards for the worker, and some 
leaders of industry doubt whether even that can be 
maintained. This clouded outlook is further darkened 
by the specter of unemployment which stalks through 
the land like a moral pestilence. 

Then industry still takes too big a toll of human life. 
On an average, five railway workers in England are 
killed each week and about fifty-one are injured daily, 
while in coal mines one hundred men a month are 
killed by normal accident and there is one non-fatal 
accident im each year for every six workers. 

In our day the pace of industry has been greatly 
accelerated. Applied science has harnessed.the forces 
of nature to the needs of man. Wireless, high-speed 
oil engines, the motor car, the aero-bus, all quicken the 
rate of progress. Wrong influences work more havoc 
by reason of the greater pace, and the possibilities of 
social and moral disaster are more numerous. 

The foregoing is only a very rough outline of some 
of the main features of our industrial system, a growth 
of the last hundred and fifty years, huge, complex, 
rendering unique service to mankind, controlled by 
capital, carried on with ruthless competition, the one 
end being economic gain, with employers and employed 
ranged in hostile camps. The great bulk of both these 
groups are most excellent men and women, carrying 
heavy burdens and faced with the solution of prob- 
lems from which we might well shrink. In so far as 
there is evil in the industrial system both are its vic- 
tims, and in both groups the best men are worrying 


tremendously to find a way out. They are in dead 


THE PRE-WAR WORLD 31 


earnest seeking to do the right thing for the common 
good, and choice of action is often terribly perplexing. 
- It is more difficult to speak of this great stream of 
industrial life in relation to the religious life of the 
country. Our life during the last century has been 
spiritually defective in that people in and outside in- 
dustry are more concerned with things than with ideas 
or people; the mind of the average young man today, 
not even excepting undergraduates, is probably more 
occupied with “ mo-bikes”’ than with literature, sci- 
ence, or sociology. The lack of a sense of the spiritual 
in industry is shown by the fact that the business 
world never looks to the Church for a sure word. 
The typical captain of industry says he has no use for 
religion, that the Sermon on the Mount is impracti- 
cable, that Christianity and business won’t square. 
This doctrine, if accepted, would strike at the very 
foundation of religion, for if God has no concern with 
one section of human life, how can we claim all life, or 
any life, for Him? With all their present evils, in- 
dustry and commerce are necessary to any modern so- 
cial system, they are spreading in all non-Christian 
lands and they form the greatest stream of the world’s 
life. It would be calamitous if, in the expansion of 
the Kingdom of God, the Church must regard them 
as making no contribution to the City of God. It 
would be a heavy handicap if the Church had to carry 
on her task of world expansion with the influence of 
trade and commerce in both Christian and non-Chris- 
tian lands flung into the other scale. She cannot be 
unconcerned as to whether the influence of industrial 
relations at home and abroad is for her or against her. 


32 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 
IV 


The question of what was the influence of religion 
in all this movement of history asserts itself at every 
turn. After the Reformation period there was a drab 
backwater in religion in Europe. There were inter- 
mittent springs of new life, but these were inadequate 
to set new tides flowing. Before the middle of the 
eighteenth century, however, “there appeared a move- 
ment headed by a mighty leader, who brought forth 
water from the rocks to make a barren land live 
again.”* Born in 1703, John Wesley began, at the 
age of thirty-five, those wonderful journeys on his 
gray mare from end to end of England, and his 
preaching tours in Scotland and America, which ush- 
ered in the dawn of a better day. With fresh insight 
into the heart of the gospel, he sounded the note of 
world evangelization and made ruthless war on all nar- 
rower conceptions. ‘The new doctrine—‘‘ The world 
is my parish ’’—heralded the new age of Christianity. 
The great geographical discoveries that were to give 
new meaning to “the world” had not yet taken place, 
but in the Evangelical Revival led by John Wesley lay 
the seeds of the modern missionary enterprise which, 
however, did not take general organized form for half 
a century—a notable exception being the Society for 
the Propagation of the Gospel, formed in 1701 for the 
maintenance of clergymen in the colonial settlements 
of England and for the propagation of the Gospel in 
those parts. 


1H. W. V. Temperley, Cambridge Modern History, Vol. VI, 
chap. ii, p. 76. 


THE PRE-WAR WORLD 33 


In 1786 in a Conference of Baptist ministers, Wil- 
liam Carey, an obscure cobbler-preacher stirred by the 
story of Captain Cook’s travels, proposed considera- 
tion of their responsibility to the heathen, and was told 
by the chairman to sit down as “a miserable enthusi- 
ast.” But the ideal had been born and six years later 
the Baptist Missionary Society was formed after 
Carey’s immortal sermon. The heroic leader had next 
to face the hostility of the then all-powerful East In- 
dia Company which endeavored to exclude him from 
its territory, to reside in which he had to follow a secu- 
lar calling. As, however, he “ preached for the glory 
of God,” and only worked on an indigo plantation to 
pay expenses, he was compelled to remove from the 
territory of the Company to Serampore where, under 
the protection of the King of Denmark, Carey carried 
on his great work. Carey’s doctrine—“ Expect great 
things from God and attempt great things for God ’’— 
had rooted. Society after Society was formed in Great 
Britain, on the continent of Europe and in America, to 
apply that doctrine in the system of foreign mission 
work. Within little more than half a century the once 
all-powerful Company became a thing of the dust and 
a byword among the nations, while in the India of 
today missionary institutions are among the most prized 
in the land; of Protestant missionaries alone there are 
over five thousand at work, and the total Christian 
community numbers nearly five million. Carey had 
planted a living idea. 

“Tt was principally through the activity of mission- 
aries,’* as Ramsay Muir points out, that the new 

1 The Expansion of Europe, pp. 115-10. 


34. THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


humanitarian spirit, which fought and won the battle 
for the abolition of slavery throughout the Empire, 
was cultivated and expressed. From among the men 
of the Evangelical Revival came the leaders of the 
humanitarian movement. These were soon in deadly 
grips with slavery and other evils. Only after a long 
fight were they able in 1806 to put an end to the slave- 
trade, and it was not till 1833 that slavery in the Brit- 
ish colonies was declared illegal. During the hundred 
years before the founding of modern missions the 
number of slaves imported into British colonies ex- 
ceeded two million.* The enormous size of the trade 
will be realized when it is recalled that for every slave 
landed five more were estimated to have perished. Or- 
ganized religion may too often have been silent, but 
outstanding men in the churches have again and again 
made vocal the wrongs of our fellow-men in various 
parts of the world until the very words “ Exeter Hall” 
were at once a glory and a term of contempt. But the 
fact was overlooked that the Evangelical Revival was 
only one phase of our intellectual upheaval, and only 
part of the new mentality was captured for Jesus Christ. 

Although the expansion of Christianity was so pro- 
foundly affected by the expansion of empire, by the 
intellectual upheavals at home, and by the development 
of a world’s trade and commerce, the problem of 
whether these forces could be brought into the service 
of Christ in one common stream of Godward life was 
discerned by few. The Church went her way in un- 
conscious isolation, handicapped in her efforts to 
preach the Evangel to all the world by the effect of 

1 The total population of England in 1801 was only 8,900,000. 


THE PRE-WAR WORLD 35 


the impact of these other streams of life flowing from 
the homeland to every non-Christian land. 

It is a startling fact that over a century after Carey 
it was possible within four years of each other to have 
a World Missionary Conference* and a World War. 
May the reason for that strange spectacle lie in the 
fact that in these hundred years the expansion of 
Christianity was isolated even in the mind and thought 
of the Church, and was hardly present at all in the 
mind and thought of the world? The triumphs of 
the first hundred years of missions far exceeded all 
expectations; they are veritable new Acts of the Apos- 
tles, but the handicaps to the work. cannot be ignored. 
For, however faithfully the Church occupies every 
square inch of the earth’s surface, it will not truly 
have occupied until its message has claimed territory 
more important than can be expressed in geographical 
terms. Every region of human action and every move- 
ment of human life in non-Christian lands must be 
claimed for Christ if the gospel is to be effectively 
preached, and it is almost idle for the missionary to 
undertake that task if the impact in these lands of the 
corresponding regions of life in the homeland is not 
Godward. The missionary message of England is the 
whole impact of English life on those that sit in dark- 
ness, for with the missionary message of the Church 
goes the missionary or non-missionary message of na- 
tional life. The two combined constitute our message 
to the non-Christian world, and the Church will not 
be able to make her message fully effective until the 


1 The World Missionary Conference, Edinburgh, 1910, attended 
by 1,200 delegates from all parts of the world. 


36 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


current of national life and influence flows in one great 
central stream infused with Christian principles. 
“There is an imperative spiritual demand that national 
life and influence as a whole be Christianized, so that 
the entire impact, commercial and political, now of 
the West upon the East, and now of the stronger races 
upon the weaker, may confirm, and not impair, the 
message of the missionary enterprise.” * 


Books FOR REFERENCE AND FURTHER READING 


Expansion of Europe, The. Ramsay Murr. Houghton Mifflin 
Co., Boston. 1923. $3.50. 

French Revolution, The. WitarrE Bettoc. Henry Holt and Co., 
New York. 1911. 50 cents. (Home University Library 
Series. ) 

Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century in England, The. 
A. ToynseE. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 1908. 
$1.00. 

Journal of John Wesley. FE. P. Dutton and Co., New York. 
Four volumes, Everyman edition. 80 cents and $1.00. 

Nineteenth Century, The. C. E. Trevetyan. Macmillan Co., 
London. (Published only in England, but may be ordered 
through The Macmillan Co., New York. Price about $1.25.) 

Shori History of the English People. J. R. GREEN. American 
Book Co., New York. $2.60. 

William Carey: Missionary Pioneer and Statesman. F. DEa- 
VILLE WALKER. Student Christian Movement, England. 5s. 


1 Message from the World Missionary Conference to the Church. 


CEASE TERRE UL 
NEW FACTORS IN THE WORLD’S LIFE 


SEVERAL new factors in the world’s life lent signifi- 
cance to the weighty words addressed to the Church 
by the World Missionary Conference, 1910, urging 
that national life and influence as a whole be Chris- 
tianized. The last half of the nineteenth century had 
seen the strong growth of nationalism in Europe; its 
closing years had witnessed the rise of a new interna- 
tional ideal; early 1n the new century the race problem 
had taken shape and become acute, while, in the years 
after the War, all these movements received a new im- 
petus from a rising tide of youth, so universal that in 
all lands men talk of it as “the Youth Movement.” 
In this small volume we can look only very briefly at 
each of these. 


I 


The Declaration of Independence of the United 
States of America, and the French Revolution, pro- 
duced far-reaching and enduring effects in the growth 
of the spirit of nationality. Europe saw Greek and 
Italian nationality established; but reactions always fol- 
lowed every step forward. Successive attempts in Po- 
land, Hungary, Bohemia, and elsewhere to effect na- 
tional independence were for the time being abortive. 
The national instinct, however, always reasserted it- 
self. Revolution broke out in various countries— 
France, Spain, Portugal—where the people felt that 

of 


38 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


the national spirit was not being adequately expressed 
in popular self-government. It was through an ap- 
peal to national pride that Bismarck, on the wave of 
victory in the Franco-Prussian war of 1871, effected 
the unity of Germany. 

The nationalist movement was till the beginning of 
the present century almost entirely confined to Eu- 
rope, and at any rate was found only among men of 
the white race. The rise of the United States was due 
to an attempt to govern arbitrarily, and not to any 
sense of nationalism. The Canadian rebellion of 
1837-8 was due more to political grievances than to 
any growth of nationalist ideas; Lord Durham’s rem- 
edy—proved by subsequent events—was to substitute 
responsible self-government for “a system of rigid 
control.” The Indian mutiny of 1857 was not so much 
a national movement as an entirely unexpected out- 
break led by a section of the Indian army worked up 
by an appeal to unredressed grievances and religious 
susceptibilities. The nationalist movement in India 
was to emerge much later. The repeated treks north- 
ward of the Boer farmers in South Africa, resulting 
in the formation of the Transvaal Republic and the 
Orange Free State, is practically the only modern ex- 
ample outside Europe, before the present century, of 
the assertion of nationality. With the new century, 
however, the situation swiftly changed, and the rise 
of nationalism in extra-European lands has created 
many perplexities and delicate problems for the mis- 
sionaries from the West and the native Christian com- 
munities alike. 

The nineteenth century was barely closed when an 


NEW FACTORS IN WORLD’S LIFE 39 


event took place which precipitated a new national 
spirit in non-Christian lands. For long, Japan had 
steadily resisted all outside influence: the early Jesuit 
mission was repelled, foreign trade was forbidden, and 
the island empire of the Far East was a closed land. 
The doors were practically forced about the middle of 
the nineteenth century and British and American com- 
merce gradually penetrated the country; but not until 
1883 was all Japan thrown open. In the next twenty 
years the development of the country was phenomenal, 
and Japan looked covetously across to Asia for new 
territories for her people. Meanwhile Russia had 
steadily crept eastward to the Pacific coast and it was 
inevitable that sooner or later the two empires should 
clash. On the battlefield of Moukden (1905) little 
Japan emerged triumphant over the might of the old 
Russia. The effect was volcanic and electric. It 
stirred the sense of nationality in land after land. Na- 
tionalism was no longer a European idea, it was world- 
wide, and a new factor was brought into the world 
situation. This new phase was accelerated by the 
World War, and the fresh impetus given to nationality 
in Europe has had its repercussions in India, China, 
Egypt, Mesopotamia, Arabia, North Africa, and else- 
where. 

There have been no great shiftings of the scene of 
history that have not also been charged with meaning 
for the Christian Church, and the modern nationalist 
movement in non-Christian lands affects its task, im- 
poses fresh responsibilities, and offers new opportuni- 
ties. Old faiths are crumbling away by mere contact 
with the facts of the modern world; Christianity 1s 


4o THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


rejected as the vanguard of western penetration; and 
today more lands than one are threatened with the fate 
of a people that have no God. The catastrophe may 
mean that in a land like China a nation may be bereft 
of religion in a single generation. Nationalism 
charged with Christianity is one of the noblest things 
on God’s earth; without the spirit of Christ it may 
shrink into the most selfish system the world has wit- 
nessed. One task of the Church in the world today 
is everywhere to make the national spirit Christian. 


IT 


While nationalism was penetrating the Orient the 
Old World was groping after a unifying international- 
ism. The Hague—the old, quaint capital of Holland, 
so full of interest to the lover of art and the student 
of history—has in the years since the World War been 
rather eclipsed by Geneva as the Mecca of interna- 
tionalism. But twenty-five years before the birth of 
the League of Nations men everywhere were feeling 
that the social fabric was hardly adequate to sustain 
the burden of a world-wide civilization based on the 
ideal of the unity of mankind. For years national 
jealousies, acute political crises, and fierce commercial 
rivalries made a forward step difficult, but in 18g9, 
due to the untiring efforts of friends of goodwill, the 
first International Peace Conference met at the Hague. 
This was followed by a second Conference in 1907, 
and from these historic meetings emerged the first 
permanent Court of International Arbitration. The 
Hague had in the old days witnessed more than one 


NEW FACTORS IN WORLD'S LIFE 41 


gathering of representatives of many nations to make 
iriternational agreements, but all of them were designed 
to promote military alliances or to secure some advan- 
tage to one or other of the signatories. Now for the 
first time in history an agreement had been come to by 
the leading governments of the world recognizing the 
place of judicial processes in settling international dis- 
putes. The Hague Conventions were only the small 
beginnings of the rule of law among the nations. In 
this conception, however, lies the true antidote to 
selfish nationality. It opened a great door wide to the 
Church and cast upon her the large task of helping 
forward the true international spirit in every land. 
The ultimate sanction for the rule of law in interna- 
tional relations lies in the law of God; His is the only 
bar at which principles of right and duty for men and 
states can ultimately be tested. But the great hopes 
born at the Hague were doomed to eclipse: in 1914 
there came a disconcerting reaction. 

Paradoxically, during the World War there was a 
cry everywhere for internationalism. Peace was to 
usher in something like competition among the nations 
to set up a state of things in which right would be 
forever on the throne. Man’s instincts are truest and 
his impulses most right when in the big crises of life 
he is called to rise to superhuman effort and sacrifice. 
But the white heat of the new sentiment cooled with 
the lengthening strife, and within a few weeks of the 
Armistice the pendulum swung violently the other way 
and the nations were functioning far below their best 
intentions, The new internationalism had for the time 
missed its opportunity, and narrow nationalism ran 


42 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


riot. Eager to secure firmly long threatened national 
rights, to realize cherished hopes of independence, or 
to maintain and strengthen national interests, men in 
every land were unconsciously carried into mutual an- 
tagonisms which hardened as the months went by. 

The new underlying assumption was that nationality 
had to be strengthened and fenced in in every possible 
way; the nations were soon feverishly harnessing 
everything to its service, and erecting fresh barriers 
against their neighbors. To many men in Christian as 
well as non-Christian lands, nationality and interna- 
tionality are still to a large extent incompatible ideals, 
and this great region of human life and thought has to 
be permeated with the spirit of Jesus. The highest ap- 
peal for an international spirit lies in the Christian 
conception of God the Father of all mankind seeking 
to make the kingdoms of this world the Kingdom of 
His Christ. 


it 


In these days much attention is being given to an- 
other world phenomenon—the race problem—which 
had also emerged on the horizon before the Edinburgh 
Conference of 1910. 

For five hundred years European civilization has 
been steadily expanding to the ends of the earth, be- 
ginning with the days when Columbus discovered 
America and Vasco da Gama rounding the Cape of 
Good Hope reached India. The dividing seas became 
the easy highway of increasing western domination, 
until at the beginning of this century practically the 


NEW FACTORS IN WORLD’S LIFE 43 


whole world of color, bowing to superior force, ac- 
knowledged white leadership—passively at least—and 
did homage to white prestige. 

While various motives can be found for this aggres- 
sive expansion of European influence on the colored 
races there can be no doubt that the primary motive 
was search for wealth. The glittering prize was “the 
gold of the Indies.” This inevitably brought the na- 
tions of Europe into collision not only with the various 
colored peoples of the world, but also with each other. 
For the mastery of North America and India many of 
the wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 
were fought. There was more bad feeling among 
whites in those days than between whites and colored 
peoples, and when white held white in contempt, it is 
hardly to be expected that either would be over-scrupu- 
lous in their dealings with weaker people of other color. 
The rise of humanitarianism led in more recent years 
to the removal of some of the worst abuses. It swept 
away slavery, made an end of the East India Com- 
pany, and gradually enthroned law. A higher and 
nobler conception of human relationships has grown 
up and the nations have accepted the principle of trus- 
teeship for backward peoples, although, on balance, the 
motive of self-interest still plays a large part in the 
relationship of white peoples with those of Asia and 
Africa. 

This long policy of the pursuit of self-interest and 
unchallenged domination inevitably left a deep mark 
on the mind of the white man. It gave him a sense 
of superiority, of conquering energy and daring, of 
masterful enterprise, knowledge and capacity, and it is 


44. THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


hardly surprising that he should as a rule despise what 
Kipling rather unhappily calls “lesser breeds,’ and 
should consider himself a man apart. In the case of 
Britons these views were exaggerated by a conscious- 
ness of sea power, unrivaled commerce and wide em- 
pire, and of a unique genius for political institutions 
and government administration, 

Thus it was at the end of the nineteenth century— 
but already the hour of challenge was at hand. After 
the decisive defeat on the plains of Manchuria of white 
Russia by yellow Japan the white man was no longer 
considered invincible, and the World War put an end 
to his prestige. He lost face throughout the world 
in statesmanship, in arms, and in religion. ‘Today all 
races are self-conscious and challenge any suggestion of 
inherent inferiority. And arising out of this fierce 
clash of wills we have the modern race problem. Its 
salient facts can only be stated in this book very 
briefly.* 

In North America there are three race problems. 
The first of these is concerned with the assimilation 
into American citizenship of European immigrants of 
different stock. The second problem arises from the 
presence in the United States of over ten million Ne- 
eroes—freed slaves and their descendants—a child 
race, but (in theory at least) equal citizens of a great 
state with the most advanced whites. The cherished 
belief that the African belongs unchangeably to a child 

1 Readers are referred to several excellent books on this subject 
which have recently been issued: Race and Race Relations, by 
Robert E. Speer; Christianity and the Race Problem, by J. H. Old- 


ham; The Clash of Color, by Basil Mathews. See book list at end 
of this chapter. 


NEW PACTORS IN WORLD'S LIPE 45 


race is, however, being steadily challenged and slowly 
destroyed. There is no more thrilling page in history 
than the story of how in the lifetime of middle-aged 
men of today, five million American Negroes (now 
doubled in number) stranded and embarrassed by a 
newly won freedom, have steadily grown in sturdy 
self-respect, economic independence and responsible 
citizenship. Separated by less than sixty years from 
the status of slavery, one in every fourteen owns his 
home, and illiteracy is rapidly disappearing, seventy- 
eight per cent of the colored people now being able to 
read and write. This upward tendency is regarded 
with mingled hope and fear; it is even resented, and 
there are millions of whites today who would forcibly 
hinder it in the interest of white domination. These 
collisions of the “ will to rise” and the ‘ will to re- 
press’ constitute a grave race problem. 

America has not only her race problem of the south, 
but also of the west. Japan cannot carry her own 
population, and her lithe and active sons cross the 
Pacific to America, who seeks to avoid within her own 
gates deadly economic competition on unequal terms. 
If Japan were weak and helpless, there would be no 
problem; but the great new fact is that the emergence 
of Japan—one of the tinted peoples—as a first-class 
power, puts her in a position to press for equal rights. 
America is undoubtedly entitled to control the charac- 
ter of her own population, but in so doing she has 
created for herself a specially acute race problem by 
discriminating on grounds of color against the citizens 
of another strong state. A significant fact to be noted 
is that the sympathies of Canada are instinctively with 


46 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


their American cousins in the attitude of the latter to 
the people of Japan. 

In the African continent a medley of races is in- 
volved in the color problem. Within the South Afri- 
can Union, Boer, Briton, and African (black and 
“colored’’) are involved, all living on different eco- 
nomic and social planes; and, with what might be 
called impish irony; the fates have added immigration 
from India and China to this tangle of race. In 
Kenya “ Codlin”’ and “ Short” in the shape of Briton 
and Indian are holding out rival friendly hands to the 
puzzled native. In other parts of Africa the problem 
is that of the adjustment of right relations between a 
few whites and large masses of blacks in what must— 
climatically—be a black man’s country. The race ele- | 
ment in the problem is easily stirred by questions cir- 
cling round government, education, taxation, land, and 
labor, and these problems are not made easier by the 
weakening or break-up of the tribal system and the 
introduction of liquor. We shall return to Africa in a 
later chapter.* 

Australia is sixty times the size of England, but 
she has a population a million and three quarters less 
than that of Greater London. This huge country with 
its sparse population of whites is faced with the dread 
of being flooded, through Chinese immigration, with 
another race having a lower economic level of life. 
The land is capable of a development far beyond the 
possibilities of its small population, and the masses of 
China covet entry to the vacant territory. The races 
stand over against each other hostile and watchful. 

1 See Chap. IV. 


NEW FACTORS IN WORLD’S LIFE 47 


In Hindustan the Indian challenges the political 
ascendancy of the white race. Probably the rise of 
nationalism all the world over has considerably affected 
the Indian, but the challenge is bound up with racial 
considerations. He sees that the problems of Ireland, 
Poland, and Czecho-Slovakia are regarded as matters 
for the Irish, the Poles, and the Czechs, that the prob- 
lems of Japan are primarily for the Japanese, of Egypt 
for the Egyptians, and of China for the Chinese. This 
gives him a sense of race inferiority. He is dissatis- 
fied that he is in a different position; he does not want 
things done for him, however well; he wishes to do 
things for himself, to have the destinies of his own life 
subject ultimately only to his own will. His political 
‘revolt is undoubtedly helped by a strong reaction 
against western civilization and a fresh appreciation 
of the intellectual and spiritual heritage of India. 

These few general examples illustrate the attitude of 
the colored races toward the white. The revolt of the 
colored races is not merely against political domination 
or even economic exploitation. There has been an ac- 
cess of self-consciousness, an understanding on the 
part of all races of the riches of their own inheritance, 
and there is a fierce desire to protect the old cultures 
against the destructive and disintegrating forces of the 
materialism of the West. 

The colored races are conscious of overwhelming 
numerical supremacy. There are six hundred and 
fifty-five million Mongolians alone, three hundred and 
nineteen millions of Indians, one hundred and ninety 
million Negroes in Africa and America, and one hun- 
dred and fifty million more of non-white races else- 


48 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


where. These huge populations create in the countries 
where they are most crowded an impelling need for 
expansion, and a growing demand for free access to 
all lands on equal terms. This in turn creates an openly 
expressed hostility, on the part of sections of the white 
race, to this surging tide of color. That hostility ex- 
tends to all progress of colored races, social, political, 
and economic. It rests on two things. First, there is 
the legitimate desire to prevent depression of European 
and American standards of life to the levels of Asia 
or primitive Africa. Competition on different eco- 
nomic levels will force the white man down to the 
level on which he can compete with colored men, and 
that would be an unmitigated evil. The rapid indus- 
trialization of the Orient, with which we shall deal in 
the next chapter, and the development of the natural 
resources of Africa, make this a very real problem. 
In the second place there is the fear of unrestricted im- 
migration with its threat to white civilization and cul- 
ture. It is acute in North America, Australia, and 
East and South Africa, where respectively Japanese, 
Chinese and Indians, each with their own peculiar so- 
cial development so different from that of the white, 
seek an outlet for surplus population and offer illimi- 
table cheap labor. 

Perhaps bulking more in the mind of the average 
man is the supposed threat to racial purity through 
intermarriage. The problem of intermixture without 
marriage the white man has made for himself. There 
are in South Africa alone five hundred and forty-five 
thousand * “ colored”’ people (i.e., the descendants of 

1 Official Year Book of the Union of South Africa, 1923, p. 133. 


NEW FACTORS IN WORLD’S LIFE = 49 


African mothers and fathers of other races), which 
means that one non-European in every ten is “ col- 
ored.” ‘The thorny path that problem creates for man- 
kind is one the white man should share, if only as an 
act of restitution for his part in the making of the 
problem. The question of intermarriage is much more 
difficult, but it is really a much smaller problem than 
intermixture, for general intermarriage at different 
stages of social development is hardly probable and 
the fear of it need not fence off the races. Marriage 
is a social institution, the very basis of human society ; 
its perfect conception is Christian marriage where the 
man and woman marry as one in Christ. Short of 
that conception racial intermarriage, in view of all the 
difficulties, is likely to be a tragedy. Many difficulties 
and disabilities will have to be faced. Race operates 
like caste: the children will be outside the pale in white 
and colored society; relatives on both sides have to be 
reckoned with; in many cases it will involve acute pov- 
erty, for economically the couple will be outcast; and 
it will always mean for one, if not for both, a com- 
plete readjustment to new conditions of life. The dif- 
ficulties are not really biological but are external to 
the two people concerned: at vottom they are due to 
the views and prejudices arising from different cultures, 
and social customs. But intermarriage is a hard road 
and only rare spirits should try it. 

These paragraphs are all too brief and bald a sum- 
mary of some of the more important facts concern- 
ing the race problem. How is the problem being 
met? 

There is a school of white men, ably represented by 


so THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


Lothrop Stoddard,* who argue that the rest of man- 
kind is inherently inferior physically, mentally, and 
morally to the people of northern Europe, and must, 
for the preservation of the nordic race, be kept in per- 
petual subjection. It might be said in answer that the 
nordic race is a myth: the Finns are Asiatic, the Scots 
are Celts and so forth. A study of race migration 
would suggest that ‘race ” itself is a myth. Stoddard 
does not seem to allow enough for the fact that stabil- 
ity in civilization rests on character alone. History 
contains no record of any people being able to keep 
another in perpetual subjection; “the race is not to the 
swift nor the battle to the strong.” The nordic peo- 
ples are not supremely gifted. They are rich in sol- 
diers, seamen, adventurers, traders—in short, conquer- 
ors—but they have not the monopoly of prophets, poets, 
artists and statesmen. The founders of all the great 
religions were Asiatics. The nordic race has distinc- 
tive gifts, but so have the other races. 

Then there are schools of Negro thought which hold 
the opposite doctrine. The first is represented by men 
like DuBois, author of Souls of Black Folk and Dark- 
water, a man of great capacity into whose soul the 
iron has entered and who preaches the impossibility of 
cooperation between white and black. The conclusive 
answer to DuBois seems to be that in spite of all the 
difficulties in the way of cooperation, isolation is im- 
possible. Men simply cannot live apart in our modern 
world. ‘Then there is the Negro leader, Marcus Gar- 
vey, who preaches unrelenting warfare on the white 
race. His cherished vision is of a day that will see 

1See The Rising Tide of Color, Lothrop Stoddard. 


NEW FACTORS IN WORLD’S LIFE 51 


war break out between the East and the West, when 
the Negroes’ chance will come. ‘“ War,’ says Garvey, 
“is the only way by which man can obtain salvation.” 
Garvey and men like him are doubtless extremists, but 
they cannot be dismissed as mere froth; in a crisis 
they might work incalculable ruin to thousands of their 
deluded followers. 

Over against these extreme views there is the Chris- 
tian conception of man, and the Christian way of 
human progress: “God hath made of one blood all 
nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the 
earth.” His design is that all men everywhere should 
come “‘ unto a perfect man, unto the measure of the 
stature of the fulness of Christ” who is redeeming 
men ‘‘out of every kindred, and tongue, and people, 
and nation,” and is making them “kings and priests ”’ 
unto God. If that is true, there is a plane on which 
all races and civilizations are assimilated into some- 
thing higher, disaster is averted, and the difficulties 
enumerated just become the rough places on the road. 

If the rough places are to be made smooth, the 
Church has a great task. She must seek to win a re- 
spect for all races, recognizing differences of gift and 
function, and stirring her members to an honest at- 
tempt to rid the mind of prejudice. The full expansion 
of Christianity to all the world is bound up in a con- 
tinuous effort to uplift every race, to give men the 
best we have got, to secure equality of justice for all, 
to insure maximum opportunity to all men—not the 
same opportunity but equal opportunity. In the fam- 
ily the children are all differently gifted physically, 
mentally, and temperamentally ; the parents love all and 


52 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


help all—not in the same way, but in the measure of 
the need of each, with greater solicitude for the greater 
need. The Church must not shirk the still more diff- 
cult task of making men willing to throw responsi- 
bility on men of other color, according to gifts and 
capacities. The gospel assumes the equality of all men 
before God, and declares that they have equal access 
to God and that any man may become a temple of His 
Spirit. 

Missions are helped or handicapped in so far as the 
influence of people within the Church is or is not 
thrown on the side of right solutions of race problems. 
There is in these days no more vital touchstone of liv- 
ing faith. Men have got to see that there is only one 
primary conflict in the world—not white against black, 
or brown, or yellow, not East against West; but right 
against wrong, the true against the false, and Christ 
against anti-Christ in whatever garb it clothes itself. 


IV 


_In a graphic paragraph a well-known Christian pub- 
licist paints in a few sentences a picture of the seeth- 
ing mind of youth—another of the great world fer- 
ments of the present time: 


Sit in the snug quiet of an undergraduate’s room at 
midnight in Oxford, or listen to the talk of youth over 
a Lyons’ tea-table in Leadenhall Street. Ask what is 
in the mind of the hot-headed youth of Delhi or the 
undergraduates of the flaming renaissance movement 
that radiates from the University of Peking through 


NEW FACTORS IN WORLD’S LIFE 53 


China and is transforming the leadership of the most 
numerous people in the world. Ask what the young 
Negroes, whose older brothers have come back furious 
from the war to demand equal rights with the whites, 
are saying. Look at the daughter and mother in an 
English home gazing at each other physically across 
three feet of dining table, but intellectually and spirit- 
ually across the deepest and widest chasm that has ever 
separated two generations. Read Rose Macaulay’s 
Dangerous Ages, J. E. Buckrose’s The Privet Hedge, 
and all the hundred other novels of today that reveal 
the heart of the new youth. Over all these ranges of 
life, and in every continent of the world today, you 
will find the seething mind of youth facing the new 
problems of the new world in a new way.* 


This rising tide of youth is one of the signs of the 
times. It is marked by intellectual alertness, by social 
passion, by a refusal to bow to tradition or authority, 
or time-worn convention or custom. It does not hold 
gray hairs in reverence; it frankly scorns middle age. 
“Too old at forty”’ is one of the convictions of youth 
today. 

The youth movement is universal. That most ven- 
erable of all institutions, the British House of Com- 
mons, has seen in recent years newly-elected members 
still in the vigor of middle age introduced to “ Mr. 
Speaker’ by their own sons. Even solemn Church 
Congresses have been almost hectored by ardent youth 
which has accused the Church of having come under 
middle-aged control. The students of a well-known 
theological college have defined their own Church as 


1 Basil Mathews, Zion’s Herald, October 18, 1923. 


54 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


“the negation of youth erected into a system.” ‘This 
is not merely an amusing parody; it reflects an under- 
lying rebel spirit. 

These young people in the shops and offices, work- 
shops and factories, colleges and universities of Great 
Britain, tell us emphatically that they are sick of the 
dismal failure of these post-war days. Youth is always 
the age of criticism; it is cynical about political par- 
ties and programs, cynical about the sincerity of states- 
men, more than doubtful about the value of the Church, 
and intolerant of sect and creed. But the youth who 
are caught up in the new movement, while critical and 
cynical, are terribly in earnest. That is the paradoxi- 
cal character of the youth movement in our time. 

Young people across the Atlantic are sharing the 
thought of their British cousins. In the colleges of. 
North America there has been almost open revolt 
against the leadership of the older generation, because 
of doubt by the young as to whether the old had any 
sure word for them about the problems created by the 
War. The youth of America are asking ‘‘ What is 
wrong with the world, and why?” They think that 
“all the world, including the United States and Can- 
ada, regardless of what it may say it believes or pro- 
fesses to follow, in its actual life and living conditions 
is today essentially pagan.’’* And what is true of 
Great Britain and America has its counterpart on the 
continent, in the older countries of the Orient, in the 
Near East, and among the youth of the Negro race. 

In Germany there is a strange, somewhat Bohemian, 


1 Christian Students and World Problems (Report of Indianapolis 
Convention, 1924), p. 2. 


NEW FACTORS IN WORLD'S LIFE 55 


movement among young people. The pre-war Ger- 
many demanded subordination from its youth; indi- 
vidualism had almost disappeared in the efficient na- 
tional machine; the state religion was the handmaid 
of the doctrine of rigid obedience. But even then 
there were rebels who refused to submit their own 
spirits to a national system, and one of these founded 
a new movement of young men and women who felt 
that their search into the why and wherefore must not 
be controlled by teachers or parents. They called 
themselves the Wandervdgel from their habit of wan- 
dering in the open country. After various ups and 
downs the astute German drill-sergeant was able to 
give the movement a semi-military formation. It be- 
came the “ Young Guard,” and in 1914 was engulfed 
in the War. The organization reemerged after 1918 
and its spirit has already captured a large part of the 
youth of German gymnasia and universities and has 
rooted firmly among working men and women. Its 
outlook is very broad. At a meeting of leaders in 
1919 the movement was pledged to “ seek the elimina- 
tion of all distinctions of race and class which divide 
common humanity.” It relies on the birth of charac- 
ter through fearless thought and through fresh con- 
tact with nature to realize this objective. The move- 
ment is preaching a new manner of life, with simpler 
requirements, temperate habits, with a mixture of puri- 
tanism and a real appreciation of all good life. Here 
is a picture of one of the wandering groups: 


From the distance, around the bend of the wood 
where the road dipped down to the river, came the 


56 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


music of a number of instruments, soft but of marked 
rhythm. I was sure that I had never heard anything 
like it before. My companion said, ‘ Wait, and you 
will see” Ina few minutes a troupe of some thirty 
or forty young men and women passed us at a rapid 
stride, walking in loose lines with arms interlaced or 
holding hands. Guitars were hung from the shoulders 
of strapping young fellows by colored ribbons whose 
ends fluttered in the wind. The band was in curious 
costume; of the girls some were in peasant dresses of 
printed cottons, their hair coiled around their heads in 
braids, following a fashion which has spread all over 
Germany as a deliberate defiance of imported styles; 
others wore even simpler and more colorful garments 
and ribbons around their hair. The youths wore 
tunics or shirts open at the throat... . With eyes 
shining they passed by, absorbed in song or earnest 
talk. 

“ Wandervogel?”’ Y asked my companion. I had 
heard years before the war of the organization of these 
“migratory birds” that had taken thousands of young 
people out of the crowded cities on holidays and cre- 
ated a cult of outdoor life and lore such as Germany 
had not known for generations. 

“ Better than that,” he replied, “they are of the new 
democratic youth movement (freideutsche Jugendbe- 
wegung) which has broken all ties with merely pro- 
tective societies organized for the young by the old.” * 


And the youth movement in Germany has its coun- 
terpart in almost all the other countries of Europe. 
Nor are youth movements confined to the white youth 
of the world. They are perhaps strongest of all in the 
Orient. 


1 Youth and Renaissance Movements, p. 68. 


NEW FACTORS IN WORLD'S LIFE 57 


It is difficult for a westerner to estimate the change 
represented by the youth movement in China or, as it 
is sometimes called, the “ New Thought ”’ movement. 
Several millenniums of the culture represented by the 
old scholars, to whom a single quotation from Con- 
fucius was sufficient authority for any maxim or any 
custom, have been swept aside by the new learning. So 
complete is this national revolution that in spite of 
the present turmoil, continual civil war, and of the 
absolute breakdown of government, modern education 
on national lines and the New Thought movement are 
progressing everywhere. The youth in the Chinese 
colleges and schools will accept nothing that is not 
critically examined and found to rest on a scientific 
basis. They want democratic government and a re- 
formed social order, and are increasingly opposed to 
the growth of western influence, which they feel to be 
merely the continuation of the old aggression. Para- 
doxically, foreign literature is more and more eagerly 
read, and the Peking Society for Lecturers on New 
Learning is bringing to China a small procession of 
British and American publicists, who are warmly wel- 
comed., “ Nothing is too new to be discussed in China 
today, and nothing too radical for experiment.” * 

The young everywhere are demanding the control 
of their own lives. A flourishing Chinese Women’s 
Rights League is seeking equal political rights, equal- 
ity of rights of inheritance, and equal opportunity in 
education, a marriage law effecting equality between 
men and women, a law fixing an age of consent, the 
abolition of licensed prostitution, the slave-trade, and 

1 Timothy Lew in China Today Through Chinese Eyes, p. 38. 


58 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


foot-binding, “equal pay for equal work,” and “ pro- 
tection of motherhood ”—and all this in a land where 
till within the present century the generation of today 
has been chained to the generations of all the past 
centuries. 

The youth of India are the torch-bearers of the na- 
tionalist movement. The student world has led in 
the new aspirations and demands, and everyone now 
recognizes that the soul of Young India is behind 
nationalism. An acute observer tells us that it is 
hardly possible to magnify the seriousness of the dis- 
content among the students of India. Nationalism 
absorbs the mind of youth, and one very real danger 
in India is that the young men of India may take an 
exclusively national view of all public questions in 
their concentration on the demand for freedom to fash- 
ion their own destiny. It may be doubted whether 
western forms of government can be easily adapted 
to oriental institutions; some new system has to be 
devised whereby when the western hand comes off the 
tiller, Indian pilots can guide the ship of state along 
lines suited to the genius of her peoples. However 
baffling are the problems of that transition, they must 
be faced with sympathy and courage, and in that ef- 
fort it is with the youth of India that Britain will 
have to reckon. 

Great common features run through all this national 
ferment of youth in every land. Everywhere it is a 
revolt against ‘‘ The God of Things as They Are.” It 
is permeated by an essential unity. Youth is the only 
“International”? today, everywhere rebel, everywhere 
united by some subtle alchemy. Statesmen, church- 


NEW FACTORS IN WORLD’S LIFE 59 


men, capitalists, and socialists have all failed to effect 
a real “‘ International” ; the young everywhere are tak- 
ing a world view. 

In many lands the youth movement is unorganized 
or is confined to small groups, but its power does not 
lie in numbers or organization. It has been well said 
that “if five per cent of the people knew what they 
wanted they could change the face of the country.” 

The great power of the youth movement lies in its 
new living thought, its social passion, its open mind. 
And yet with this open-mindedness there does not come 
everywhere an easy access for Christianity. Large 
numbers of men and women in the youth movement 
name the Name of Jesus Christ; in the colleges and 
high schools of the world their number exceeds a quar- 
ter of a million. But in the old lands youth has re- 
volted from narrow pietism—it abhors statecraft and 
churchcraft; it does not see that Christianity stands 
for the good against the evil everywhere, that it is the 
supreme fermenting force in the world. In the non- 
Christian lands Christianity is too often merely re- 
garded as foreign propaganda; while in China there is 
an anti-Christian Students’ Movement, bitterly hostile 
to and actively opposing the spread of Christianity, in 
which it professes to see only western imperialism, mili- 
tarism, and capitalism in a new form. 

Only a movement with the fervor of a religion can 
capture youth, and yet youth everywhere is challenging 
religion. Why do we have thousands of eager Italian 
boys in black shirts following a flag for hours in dust 
and heat? Why are there six hundred thousand mem- 
bers of the Komsomol, or Communist Youth Move- 


Lee Na ni ee 
TVV ohh rir «. 
. 7 i ft Fay 





60 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


ment? Why are there thirty German Youth Move- 
ments, all impelled by a desire to escape from the tram- 
mels of the past? Why the China Renaissance Youth 
Movement? Why the Japanese Senanden? Why have 
communist students captured the student world in the 
Universities of Athens, Sofia, and Prague and other 
continental towns so that Christian students are driven 
to inquire, “How can we get from our members as 
much loyalty and certainty about Christianity as the 
young communists have about communism?” Youth, 
in all these movements, asserts that the task before 
man ‘‘is to strive for a new spirit, the vanquishment 
of right by love, of authority by an inner freedom, con- 
straint by a cosmic restraint.” * It does not, however, 
hear the sure word “ Love is of God”’; it has not yet 
entered into the liberty wherewith Christ has made men 
free, nor learned the love of Christ which constrain- 
eth, nor has it seen in Him the great leader of the 
youth of the world. 


All these volcanic national and racial upheavals, all 
the fierce stirring of the mind of youth, may appear 
superficially to be merely uncontrolled forces resulting 
only in a mischievous clash of wills, issuing in wild 
anarchy. In reality, stripped of all excrescences, they 
are a healthy upheaval of the human spirit breaking 
through the stifling crust of “things as they are” for 
a breath of fresh air. In the desire to be free men hit 
out blindly at everything which appears to stand for 
the old cramping order of things. But all upward 
movements of the spirit of men are born of the Spirit 


1 Youth and Renaissance Movements, p. 77. 


NEW FACTORS IN WORLD’S LIFE 61 


of God. Our task is to interpret them, to find what is 
of God in them, to help them to purge themselves of 
all that is dross, and to relate them to the coming of 
His Kingdom. 

The issues raised by all these movements touch the 
expansion of Christianity very closely. Heralds of the 
Cross everywhere have to preserve a right attitude to 
nationalism in State and Church. Nothing would be 
a greater barrier to religion than that Jesus Christ 
should be regarded as a western national. In an ef- 
fective international standard lies the only hope in some 
lands for adequate personal and religious liberty, de- 
cent government, and a fair chance for the young 
Church to carry the gospel and give Christian educa- 
tion to her own people. Race antipathies in the mem- 
bership of a Church paralyze its life and negative its 
message; in a Christian nation they very easily handi- 
cap the foreign missionary and impair his mission. 
What an ally the youth of the world might be in mak- 
ing that message effective! Here are great regions of 
human life lying athwart the Church in her task of 
world-wide expansion, which demand new and en- 
larged ideals of the enterprise. 


Books FoR REFERENCE AND FURTHER READING 


Christianity and the Race Problem. J. H. OtpHam. George H. 
Doran Co., New York. 1924. $2.25. 

Clash of Color, The. Bastz MatHews. Missionary Education 
Movement, New York. 1924. Cloth, $1.25; paper, 75 cents. 

Covenant of the League of Nations. World Peace Foundation. 
V. 3, Special number, July, 1920. 5 cents. 

Menace of Colour, The. J. W. Grecory. J. B. Lippincott Co., 
Philadelphia. 1925. $4.50. 


62 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


Quest of Nations, The. T. R. W. Lunt. United Council for 
Missionary Education, London. 75 cents. 

Race and Race Relations. Ropert E. Speer. Fleming H. Revell 
Co., New York. 1924. $3.50. 

Race Problem and the Teaching of Jesus Christ, The. J. S. Hoy- 
LAND. Religious Tract Society, England. 3s. 6d. 

Rising Tide of Color, The. LotHrop Stopparp. Charles Scrib- 
ner’s Sons, New York. 1920. $3.00. 


CHAPTER IIT 


THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF THE 
ORIENT 


In Chapter I we saw how the failure of Christianity 
to permeate to any large extent the great movements 
of human activity and thought which broke out in the 
middle of the eighteenth century, made possible one 
hundred and fifty years later a World Missionary Con- 
ference and a World War within four years of each 
other. In Chapter II we looked at some of the new 
world-wide movements which must needs be Christian- 
ized if they are to help and not hinder the message of 
the missionary enterprise. We aim in these next four 
chapters at dealing with a few of the present-day move- 
. ments in the non-Christian world which present fresh 
regions of material and mental development for occu- 
pation by the Church of Christ. The present chapter 
deals with the industrialization of the Orient. This 
and similar movements are making the world with 
which the new generation will have to deal, and are 
creating the conditions under which the expansion of 
Christianity has to be carried on. 

Before the World War fastened a new set of prob- 
lems on a distressed world, the Far East had already 
its full share of upheaval. On the surface the “un- 
changing East’’ was much the same as for centuries 
past, but, in the last few decades, in India, China, and 
Japan three ancient civilizations have been swept into 
the great current of world-wide commerce and indus- 
try. These countries contain about one half of the 
total population of the globe, and while as yet only a 

63 


64 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


tithe of that huge mass of humanity has come under 
these new influences, the beginnings of a swift indus- 
trial revolution on western lines have undoubtedly set 
in. Commercial and industrial influences are far- 
reaching, and in so far as these ancient lands are be- 
coming commercialized and industrialized, they are 
leaving much of the old life behind them. ‘The people 
of the Orient are taking their place in the life of the 
world at a thousand points, and are now making their 
contribution to the great common stream of life from 
which issueS the uplift or degradation of the whole 
human race. 


I 


In the case of India there was from time immemo- 
rial a certain amount of trading contact with the West. 
The gold of the Indies was the lure of many a mer- 
chant-adventurer, and long before the British conquest 
of India through the victories of Clive and Warren 
Hastings, a considerable trade had sprung up with 
Europe. Since Queen Elizabeth’s time the East India 
Company had been silently prospering. Its charter 
was again and again extended; it was an entrenched 
monopoly, made huge profits, and developed a large 
trade. But not until the Company was finally abol- 
ished did the spirit of modern commerce and industry 
vitally touch India. 

China had for ages presented closed doors to foreign 
adventurers. When Abraham emigrated from Chaldea 
to Canaan, the Chinese people had already begun to 
develop a language, a government, a religion, arts and 


INDUSTRIALIZATION OF ORIENT 65 


sciences, which have seldom been touched by any 
breath from the outside world during four thousand 
years. Canton was the first door to open, and became 
the trading port in China for the East India Company. 
The trade with Canton was not unattended with diffi- 
culties. The European “ factories’ * were confined to 
a very tiny territory, and when the Company offended, 
the Chinese suspension of trade by the latter was the 
effective method of disciplining the “ foreign devils,” 
who were invariably glad to renew trade relations by 
payment of an indemnity. Europeans were not al- 
lowed to touch at any other ports until after the first 
Opium War of 1841-2. Under the treaty made at the 
end of that war, five ports, Shanghai, Ningpo, Fuchow, 
Amoy, and Canton, were opened to European trade 
and the modern commercialization of China really 
began. 

After a period of slight contact with the West, in 
medizval times, Japan was for long a closed land. Its 
opening to modern trade and commerce dates from 
_ the day in 1863 when Commodore Perry of the Amer- 
ican Navy sailed into the Bay of Yedo with a squadron 
of four ships. The closed door was practically forced 
open, and in the course of the next few years commer- 
cial treaties were made with the various European 
countries. 

While, as mentioned, India had a limited trade with 
the West for centuries, world commerce in India, 
China, and Japan alike, is quite a recent development. 
The swift growth of these new commercial contacts is 
almost dramatic. Already the merchandise of the 


1 The Company’s warehouses were called “ factories.” 


66 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


Orient is carried over the Seven Seas by a great fleet 
of richly laden ocean-going steamers. In 1922, the 
tonnage of ships engaged in foreign trade entering and 
leaving the ports of India, China, and Japan was ap- 
proximately equal to the tonnage engaged in foreign 
trade entering and leaving the ports of the United 
States. 

It will hardly be surprising that with such an enor- 
mous shipping trade the East has taken to shipbuild- 
ing, in which Japan has already made big strides. Her 
output is exceeded only by Great Britain and the 
United States. Though she is but a recent entrant 
into shipbuilding competition, she is already producing 
one fifteenth of the whole world’s output. India’s pro- 
duction is negligible, but China has now begun ship- 
building, for which she has unequalled facilities. 
Within the lifetime of the present generation the Clyde, 
the Tyne, and Belfast may find deadly rivals in the 
Yangtse valley, Hong-Kong, and Kobe. 

The long coast lines of India, China, and Japan, and 
their numerous excellent ports, have made easy the 
rapid development of sea traffic. But the increase in 
internal communication has been equally notable. The 
first railway was built in India seventy years ago; now 
there are as many miles of track lines operating as 
in Great Britain. China’s first railway was laid down 
only as late as 1876, but there were at the end of 1921 
about nine thousand miles open in China and Man- 
churia, and a much larger mileage projected. The 
railways in China are few compared with the huge 
country to be served, and the recent disturbed condi- 
tions of the land have made railway development dif- 


INDUSTRIALIZATION OF ORIENT 67 


ficult, but with settled conditions railway construction 
is sure to proceed rapidly. The growth of railways in 
Japan reads like a fairy tale. Forty-five years ago 
there were little more than as many miles of railway. 
In 1922 the mileage was equal to more than one third 
of the railways in Great Britain. 


II 


The rapid commercial development of China ‘and 
Japan has been accelerated by the great natural re- 
sources of these countries. Japan is especially rich in 
coal, iron, silver, copper, and petroleum, while raw 
silk is produced in abundance. China is essentially an 
agricultural country; in addition to the huge crops of 
grain required to feed her own millions, large quanti- 
ties of silk, cotton, and tea are produced for export. 
But for China many women could not walk in silk at- 
tire; she furnishes over one fourth of the world’s sup- 
ply of raw silk. China is also rich in minerals. Coal 
is abundant, and some of the iron and copper fields 
are among the richest in the world. The country 
claims to have known long before the rest of mankind 
the art of smelting iron. With a very extensive coast 
line, an abundance of excellent deepwater ports, and 
two great river systems stretching into the heart of 
the country and navigable for hundreds of miles, China 
is well equipped for development of her great resources. 
It should always be borne in mind, however, that China 
is still an agricultural country, and that in Japan there 
are nearly four times as many people engaged in farm- 
ing as in other industries. India, like China, depends 


68 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


for her life on agriculture, more than two thirds of 
her people being supported by tilling the soil, rearing 
stock, and forestry. One tenth of all the land tilled is 
under cotton; large crops of jute are raised; and of 
course India and Ceylon supply most of our breakfast 
and afternoon tea. But there is also substantial min- 
eral wealth in India, especially coal, gold, mica, lead, 
copper, and manganese, as well as petroleum. 

The industrial development of the Orient has been 
influenced in two directions by these natural resources. 
The growth of cotton, jute, and silk has led to textile 
industries, while mineral resources have led to coal 
mining, the smelting of iron and other ore, and the 
development of iron and steel and allied industries. 
For those who revel in statistics some figures may be 
given, | 

India grows cotton and jute in enormous quantities 
and the country is suitable for textile development. 
In Calcutta and district there are seventy-six jute mills, 
employing over 276,000 workers, while nearly three 
hundred cotton mills employing over 300,000 workers 
are found in Bombay, Madras, and other towns. China 
likewise grows cotton and also silk, and there too great 
mills have been erected. At the beginning of the pres- 
ent century there were two modern cotton mills in 
China; in 1922* there were over seventy with more 
than 2,500,000 spindles, one hundred hosiery, under- 
wear, and towel mills, one hundred and twenty modern 
corn mills, and various other factories employing to- 
gether over half a million men, women, and children. 
These form the nucleus of a great army of Chinese 


1 Statesman’s Year Book. 


INDUSTRIALIZATION OF ORIENT 69 


workers who some day are going to meet all the needs 
of the four hundred million potential customers within 
their own frontiers. Cotton is imported into Japan 
from India and China, spun into yarn on over 4,000,000 
spindles, and woven into cotton cloth on 45,000 looms. 
The Japanese also spin a large part of the silk they 
produce. 

All this India, China, and Japan do not only for 
themselves but in an increasing degree for the great 
markets of the world. In addition to exporting raw 
jute, India sells to England and other countries nearly 
$135,000,000 worth of jute products each year. China 
cannot be said to have entered on world industrial com- 
petition. She does not as yet manufacture all the cot- 
ton goods she needs for her own people, and she has 
to buy from Japan and England, but every year sees 
an increasing Chinese output and a narrower margin 
of requirement from the outside world. Soon China 
will not only clothe her own people but she will sell 
cotton to other countries. Japan’s population is small 
compared with India’s and China’s teeming millions, 
and already her great markets are overseas. Japan ex- 
ports annually to China (including Hong-Kong), 
Straits Settlements, and India, goods to the value of 
over $250,000,000, so that her trade is already a factor 
in setting a standard of competition throughout the 
Far East. 

This huge textile development is effecting a subtle 
social change. India and China, like other Eastern 
lands, still use the hand loom, but in the modern world 
the god of cheapness must eventually consign the 
hand loom to the scrap-heap—it has no chance in com- 


70 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


petition with the most up-to-date textile machinery, 
and the social structure it represents will perish with it. 
A large part of the cotton thread produced in the big 
factories on the Yangtse is still sent to the interior, 
where it is woven into cloth on hand looms. But 
modern machinery is unfortunately a remorseless ag- 
eressor, before which arts and crafts have to bow 
everywhere. In attempting to win back India to home- 
spun, Gandhi was surely emulating the monarch who 
ordered back the tides of the sea. 

If great textile industries have invaded the East, of 
as great importance has been the development of its 
mineral wealth. Coal and iron are the twin pillars of 
modern industry, and so long as coal is the main source 
of power, so long will factories group themselves near 
the coal supplies. Accordingly, the big industrial re- 
gions of the world are found near the coal and iron 
fields in Great Britain, Belgium, the Ruhr, and Penn- 
sylvania. India, China, and Japan have abundant sup- 
plies of coal, and extensive iron ore is found in all 
three countries. The furnaces of Tatanagar, Han- 
kow, and Osaka are names as familiar in the iron and 
steel world as Pittsburg, Middlesborough, and the 
Ruhr. The output of pig iron in China in 1922 was 
equal to one fifth of the output in Great Britain for 
the same year. Similarly, silver, copper, tin, lead, 
wolfram, and antimony are all found in large quanti- 
ties in one or other of the countries of the Orient, and 
are being mined and manufactured in increasing quan- 
tities. 

Many large Eastern banking businesses have grown 
up even in disordered China, where modern banking is 


INDUSTRIALIZATION OF ORIENT 71 


only an institution of the present century, and foreign 
banks are strong and numerous. There are regular 
ocean steamer services from the great ports of the 
Orient to all parts of the world. The telegraph and 
the telephone link up their cities, and they are in con- 
stant cable and wireless communication with lands 
overseas. 

The rapidity of all these developments can hardly 
be overstated. The growth is, to a certain extent, re- 
flected in the figures of traffic passing through the 
Suez Canal, that great arterial road between West and 
East. The Suez Canal Company * had successive rec- 
ord years in 1922, 1923, and 1924. In the latter year 
over 25,000,000 tons of shipping passed through the 
canal as against the best pre-war year (1912), the fig- 
ure for which was about 20,000,000 tons. India has 
in half a century increased her trade tenfold. The im- 
portant consideration is not so much the present extent 
of industrialism in India as its rapid growth in recent 
years.” Between 1902 and 1920 the number of fac- 
tory workers increased fourfold, of miners above 
ground threefold, while workers in mines below ground 
increased by more than one half. In Japan 14,000 
new factories were built during the World War; these 
have come to stay. In 1911 China imported 3,000,000 
barrels of flour, but ten years later she exported the 
same quantity and imported none. Japan fifty years 
ago was a peaceful agricultural country and as late as 
1883 there were only 125 modern factories. In tg21 


1 British Chamber of Commerce Journal, Shanghai, March, 1925. 
2See articles on ‘“Industrialism in India,’ in the National 
Christian Council Review, June-September, 1925. 


72 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


there were 71,000, employing over 1,750,000 men, 
women, and children.* 


III 


All this development has meant the growth of a 
large mining, industrial, and transport population in 
the new industrial centers and at the ports, with con- 
sequent overcrowding and bad conditions judged even 
by eastern standards. At the same time its influence 
permeates to the agricultural community and to the 
old trading guilds which go back for at least ten cen- 
turies. The old and the new life go on side by side, 
but business, formerly a family affair, is more and 
more becoming a matter of individual units, and old 
customs and equities are displaced. Competition and 
the law of supply and demand are now in the saddle, 
and age-long guild customs are no longer adequate to 
regulate trading and stabilize business, 

There are various factors in this rapid industrial 
development of the Orient which must be considered. 
Primarily there is the introduction of western capital 
and the tendency of human nature to exploit natural 
wealth everywhere. Then unlimited cheap labor and 
cheap fuel coupled with western efficiency of plant and 
organization, give a great advantage to Oriental indus- 
tries in competition with the West. Further, the East 
has an immense home market with potential customers 
numbering about half of the human race, among whom 
there is a steadily growing demand for modern goods 
stimulated by the new and rapid means of transport 

1 Résumé Statistique de L’Empire du Japon, 1924. 


INDUSTRIALIZATION OF ORIENT 73 


and communication, multiplied points of contact, the 
spread of modern education, and the growth of the 
newspaper press. 

In all this industrial development the worst features 
of the growth of the factory system in the West are 
being reproduced. The old “cry of the children” goes 
up day by day, and in lands where human life is cheap, 
men and women are the easy and helpless victims of 
industrial injustice. In some of the Shanghai cotton 
mills children of from seven to twelve years of age 
work twelve hours a day on a night and day shift. 
Babies are brought to the mills with their mothers, 
and live in the dust and heat; tiny children do odd 
jobs at the age of six and regular work at eight for 
long shifts of twelve hours, one procession coming out 
of the mill half asleep as the other goes in. In a re- 
view of 880 cases dealt with in the Industrial Hospital 
at Shanghai it is stated that “the youngest child in- 
jured was five years old.”’* One employer has de- 
clared that “if we stop employing children in mills 
we would have to close down .. . children’s hands 
are peculiarly fitted for the work.’ * A half-holiday 
on Saturday and one rest day a week are almost un- 
known to the industrial mites of the Orient and their 
heritage of joy and play is denied to them. They 
lead an almost prison-like life. The conditions under 
which their mothers work ensure that many more 
“sleep the sleep that knows no waking” long before 
they are old enough to toddle to the mill. 

The exploitation of child labor in the cotton mills 


1 Paper by H. W. Decker, in China Medical Journal, March, 1924. 
2 Sherwood Eddy, The New World of Labor, p. 26. 


74. THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


of Shanghai has acquired considerable notoriety. It 
has been the subject of severe criticism for some years, 
and in June, 1923, mainly under the pressure of 
Chinese Christians, missionaries, and others specially 
interested in religious and social questions, the Munici-. 
pal Council appointed a Commission to inquire into 
the matter. That Commission made its report about 
a year later. In view of the interest created in the 
matter a summary of its recommendations is printed 
as an Appendix.* 

In 19217 there were about fifty cotton mills in or 
on the borders of the Shanghai Foreign Settlement— 
now there are several more—employing not hundreds 
but thousands of children down, it would seem, to the 
age of about eight or nine years. “ Many of the for- 
eign-owned mills of Shanghai, which have produced 
substantial dividends for their shareholders during the 
past ten years, are still employing child labor for long 
hours per day or night, and the very mild measures 
of reform which have been recommended by the spe- 
cial Industrial Commission after two years’ negotia- 
tions have so far failed to secure ratification by the 
rate-payers of the International Shanghai Settlement. 
Such facts as these afford ready ammunition for the 
communistic propagandist or anti-foreign agitator, as 
he inveighs against the exploitation of human life by 
so-called ‘ callous capitalists.’ The foreign-owned mills 
form but a small percentage of the total, and condi- 
tions within them, as competent observers have pointed 
out, are far superior to those to be found in most Chi- 

1 Page 183. 
2 North China Daily News, 5th November, 1921. 


INDUSTRIALIZATION OF ORIENT 75 


nese industrial enterprises; but it is impossible to gloss 
over the fact that they are employing labor under condi- 
tions that would not be tolerated for a moment in this 
country.” * 

The factory system in India affects child life in an- 
other way. Bombay, the Manchester of India, has 
about 150 cotton mills with some 200,000 operatives ; 
the city is in fact a “ cottonopolis.” Two out of every 
three babies born there die within one year, as against 
one out of fourteen in England, but the figures of the 
mill population are even worse. Three fourths of all 
the babies born in Bombay are born in a one-roomed 
house, and of these more than eight in every ten die 
within a year of their birth. The other side of the 
picture is that the cotton mills of Bombay, largely 
owned by wealthy Parsees, make notoriously large 
profits on the capital invested in the mills. 

In 1923 there were over 2,000,000 factory workers 
in Japan.” Of that number more than half were 
women. A reliable writer on Japan states that the 
factories have now to recruit 300,000 new girls from 
the country districts every year, of whom over one 
third return home within the year, one sixth because 
of serious illness, tuberculosis heading the list. 

Mr. Suzuki, the labor leader of Japan, stated ten 
years ago that over one hundred and thirty thousand 
women were employed in the mines of that country. 
“Most of them are between sixteen and twenty years 
of age, and they work in the pits along with the men. 
‘Twenty per cent of all the laborers in the coal mines 


1 Harold Balme, What is Happening in China (1925), pp. 17-18. 
2 Résumé Statistique de L’Empire du Japon, 1924. 


76 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


today are women. They are usually employed to carry 
baskets filled in the pits. They work in the bowels 
of the earth, naked like the men, wearing only a little 
breech clout.” * Another great Japanese leader, T. 
Kagawa, has stated to the writer that while there has 
been some improvement in the last ten years, the con- 
ditions are not materially changed, and that accidents 
are very numerous. 

The industrial condition of the women workers of 
the Orient denies life to their children, forms a degra- 
dation of womanhood, and is a sinister element in the 
body social; tomorrow it will mark the beginning of a 
struggle in the East for sex economic independence. 
Following the example of Japan, educated young 
Chinese women are now beginning to take posts as 
clerks in banks, assistants in business houses, and 
operators in telephone offices. All this is leading to 
the breakdown of the restrictions which in former 
days hemmed in the life of the women of China, and 
it is not without significance that in Korea today a 
newspaper is published under the title The New 
W oman. 

Labor and life are both cheap in the Far East. Of 
one Chinese cotton spinning company it has been 
written : ” 


The profits of the factory again surpassed $500,000. 
. . . For the past two years it has been running day 
and night with scarcely any intermission. The num- 
ber of hands employed is 2,500. . . . [The statement 
1 Quoted in Creative Forces in Japan, Galen M. Fisher, p. 60. 


2 Quoted from the Maritime Customs Trade Report for 1920 by 
Sherwood Eddy in his New World of Labor. 


INDUSTRIALIZATION OF ORIENT 77 


then gives a wages table.] It will be seen that the 
Company is in an exceptionally favorable position. 
With the raw material at their doors, an abundant and 
absurdly cheap labor supply to draw on, and no vexa- 
tious factory laws to observe, it is not surprising that 
their annual profits should have exceeded their total 
capital on at least three occasions. 


This unashamed statement may be allowed to speak 
for itself. Itneeds no comment or elaboration. Cheap 
labor is a nightmare to civilization. No man 1s good 
enough to have an abundance of “absurdly cheap 
labor ’ at his disposal and “ no vexatious factory laws 
to observe.” It invariably ends in abuse. 

Figures and vivid pictures are dangerous, but when 
China enters on world-wide competition, industry in 
the West will have to face some grave and perplexing 
questions. A consideration of China’s labor supply, 
her raw material, and her potential home market may 
well give the West pause. Competition between white 
and colored labor, on a different economic level, is 
inevitable. So surely as metal is attracted by a mag- 
net will capital follow the cheapest material and the 
least costly labor and freedom from restriction. The 
increase of an efficient community of workers in the 
Orient will far outrun any improvement in social con- 
ditions. Hours, wages, and conditions, but not effi- 
ciency, will for long lag behind the standards aimed 
at in the West. The first impulse is to repress the in- 
dustrial status and opportunity of the native worker, 
but that impulse is impotent in the self-governing 
states of the Orient. So far as can be seen this is a 


78 THE COST! OF A NEW WORLD 


problem labor has hardly awakened to. In the present 
economic distress it is clear that the working classes 
in one European country are seriously affected by 
worse working conditions in another. But such conse- 
quences are trifling to those which will be felt when the 
full strain of Oriental competition for world markets 
sets in. Difficult and delicate problems of mutual re- 
lations and interest will have to be settled before the 
workers of the world can unite. 

The far-reaching reactions of industry ought to be 
much better understood by Christian folk. A lady* 
speaking to a huge missionary convention in America 
began her address thus: 


Several of us in this room are wearing hair nets... . 
Comparatively few of the women who still use these 
realize that the great center of the hair-net industry 
is in the city of Chefoo, China. And probably even a 
smaller number of those who have discarded nets for 
bobbed locks are aware that they have thereby con- 
tributed to the unemployment of hundreds of women 
in that far-away city of north China. Yet, only a 
short time ago a letter from a friend in Chefoo con- 
tained this sentence: “I don’t know what will happen 
to us if you women in America don’t stop cutting your 
hair. We are all losing our jobs. There were 18,000 
women and girls in the hair-net factories here two 
years and a half ago, and now there are only a few 
over 2000.” 


The converse picture followed: 


It is a far cry from Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, to 
Tokyo, Japan. But when a few months ago the girls 


1 Miss Margaret Burton at Washington, January, 1925. 


INDUSTRIALIZATION OF ORIENT = 79 


in a silk mill there petitioned for higher wages, their 
employer said that to grant their request would mean 
the failure of his business. When pressed for an ex- 
planation he gave competition with the silk mills of 
Tokyo as the reason for his answer. 


The close association between industry and arma- 
ments has had its reaction in the East, where the gift 
of modern armaments cannot be reckoned as a gain 
to the welfare of the people. Japan’s field army of 
twenty-one divisions and her $200,000,000-a-year 
navy, make a heavy toll on industry, while no one 
would contend that the Indian army budget of $400,- 
000,000 can be anything but an intolerable burden on 
her resources. Modern industry and social custom and 
political action in West and East are interdependent 
and react one on the other, and anything we can do 
to help to bring a Christian way of life into industry 
in this country will help to make things better in the 
East, while any betterment in the East will react here. 


IV 


An attempt was made in the Treaty of Versailles to 
lay down a minimum labor charter for all the world. 

Part XIII of the Treaty deals with labor. It lays 
down the principle that universal peace can only be 
established if it is based on social justice. It states 
that conditions of labor exist involving such injustice, 
hardship, and privation to large numbers of people as 
to produce unrest so great that the peace and harmony 
of the world are imperilled and an improvement of 


80 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


these conditions is urgently required. The Treaty 
created a permanent international labor organization 
for the promotion of better labor conditions through- 
out the world. It lays down certain methods and prin- 
ciples which seemed to the signatories to be of special 
and urgent importance, and already the organization 
has done much useful work. But these methods and 
principles have hardly as yet touched the industrial 
systems of the Far East. 

In India the workers’ modest charter is contained in 
the Factory Act of 1921, which fixes a maximum 
eleven-hour day or sixty-hour week and disallows em- 
ployment of children between the ages of twelve and 
fifteen for more than six hours a day. In India, how- 
ever, western standards are lamentably few, and inquiry 
and statement of facts are not welcomed. It is the 
same in Japan. When the Rev. T. Kagawa investi- 
gated the coal mines of Kyusiu in 1918 his discoveries 
were so damaging both to the mine owners and to the 
government inspectors that he was forbidden to pub- 
lish part of his report.* 

Some factories in Japan, but only a fraction of the 
total, have excellent provision for workers, compara- 
tively good wages, an eight-hour day, insurance against 
unemployment and a pension fund, but in Tokyo, for 
instance, only three hundred factories out of five thou- 
sand are said to have anything like welfare work. A 
Japanese National Factory Law was passed in 1911 
and came into force in 1916. It provided inter aha 
that: 

1 Creative Forces in Japan, Galen M. Fisher, p. 68. 


INDUSTRIALIZATION OF ORIENT 81 


(1) Children under twelve years of age cannot be 
employed except that, with the permission of the ad- 
ministrative authorities, children as young as ten may 
be employed on light work. 

(2) The employment of children under fifteen and 
women for more than twelve hours a day is prohibited. 

(3). The employment of children under fourteen and 
women between the hours of Io p.m. and 4 a.m. is 
prohibited. 


But the first and third provisions were not to be put 
into operation for fifteen years in order to allow the 
factories time to adjust themselves! * 

China has so far only paper labor legislation 
and it is difficult to see how in the midst of the pre- 
vailing disorder any protection of the worker can be 
enforced. 

Article 427 of the Peace Treaty secures to employees 
the right of association for all lawful purposes. India, 
China, and Japan are all signatories, and although the 
International Labor Conference has given much atten- 
tion to the Orient, especially to China, the workers of 
the Far East have not yet been able to make good this 
right to combine. Industrial unrest seems to be the 
only possible road to betterment. In Japan the labor 
movement took rise within the last thirty years, in the 
midst of the boom following the victory of Japan over 
China. It was subject to constant police restriction, 
but several strikes occurred with varying success till in 
1918, arising out of the war-time anti-profiteering rice 
riots in Kobe, the labor movement took on a new lease 

1 Creative Forces in Japan, Galen M. Fisher, pp. 83 and 84. 


82 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


of life. In that year there were over eight hundred 
strikes, involving one hundred and twenty-five thou- 
sand workers. 

Two events in the Far East greatly strengthened the 
position of the young Trade Unions. The strike of 
1921 at the great Kobe shipyards in Japan showed that 
the spirit of the old feudal régime was gone; the worker 
had discovered his unsuspected powers, and meant to 
put up a fight for social justice. The great leader of 
the movement was the well-known Kagawa who, while 
he fights for the workers, remains pastor of a little 
church in a slum. The Kobe strike failed, the workers 
made no terms, their leader was sent to prison, but the 
sympathies of Japan were with the strikers who had 
measured swords with their employers and had created 
an organization which stood the test of defeat. In 
1922 the Chinese seamen took a stand (in the words of 
the President of their Union) against ‘‘ deprivation of 
their rights, rough treatment, fourteen-hours work a 
day, and an existence bordering on semi-starvation.”’ 
It looked a forlorn hope by a group of “ silly sailor 
folk” unaccustomed to organization. Within a fort- 
night the number on strike reached thirty thousand, 
and the intervention of the British in Hong-Kong in 
proclaiming the Seamen’s Union to be an unlawful so- 
ciety only resulted in sympathetic strikes of twenty 
thousand coolies and others. In a month one hundred 
and sixty-six steamers had been held up, and at the 
end of three months the industrial life of Hong-Kong 
was completely paralyzed. Then shipowners and Gov- 
ernment capitulated. The Seamen’s Union was de- 
clared lawful, the strikers obtained their demands, and 


INDUSTRIALGIZATION (OBR ORIENT | 183 


an immediate impetus was given to labor organizations 
among Chinese workers. 

Trade Unionism in India is as yet in its infancy and 
is being organized under many difficulties. India is 
perhaps the poorest country on earth. The average 
income of the Indian worker is about seventy shillings 
a year; thousands live in perpetual debt and are glad 
to get one meal a day. The industrial community is 
small—one in forty. The Indian is a village dweller. 
Only crushing poverty drives him to the jute factory 
or the cotton mill, and as soon as he can, he returns to 
his village. The industrial countries in the West have 
developed permanent industrial populations; but in 
India the village is still the home, and there is a con- 
stant ebb and flow between the industrial towns and 
the rural areas. With brilliant exceptions labor in 
India is not throwing up a strong leadership from its 
own ranks, and is therefore subject to exploitation at 
the hands of self-appointed leaders. If industrial un- 
rest, of which there is much in India, is not to end in 
mere sporadic anarchy, it is surely better that there 
should be adequate organization to guide the ignorant 
helpless mass of Indian workers and to formulate their 
demands and press for social justice. 

Just as industrialism created in the West the condi- 
tions set forth in Chapter I, so in the East the old 
sordid story is being reenacted and the old bitter strug- 
gle staged again, but with this difference—that while 
in the West the best Christian consciousness of the 
community sympathizes with the demand for adequate 
factory legislation and better conditions for working 
people, there is no similar public opinion or similar 


84. THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


| 
standard of the value of personality to which appeal 
can be made in the East, and as yet, except in Japan, 
there is hardly any active industrial machinery through 
which betterment can be enforced. 

Human greed and callousness are at the root of 
much of the evil. The world has not yet witnessed 
rapid economic development without exploitation. 
Unfortunately the case of the Chinese cotton com- 
pany * is not an isolated one. The same sordid story 
is true of the jute mills of Calcutta. Dividends ex- 
ceeding the total amount of capital of a company are 
by no means unknown. Some of the firms concerned 
have good English and Scottish names, and unfortu- 
nately the consumer, in whatever land he lives, is the 
unconscious employer of sweated labor. In such a 
situation industrial strife when it breaks out becomes 
acute and often takes the form of fierce rioting and 
race conflict. Think of the openings for Bolshevik 
agents ever ready to exploit discontent, wherever found! 
A sense of injustice is soon turned into bitter enmity, 
generally against the West, and the only hope of the 
worker in such a situation is wise leadership basing 
demands on justice, opposed to violence, and with a 
right view of the sacredness of personality and of the 
value of service and sacrifice. Where are these ideals 
to be found outside Christianity ? 


V 


Opinions may differ as to the relation of the Chris- 
tian Church to economic development, but no mission- 


1See p. 76. 


INDUSTRIALIZATION OF ORIENT 85 


ary doubts that a right understanding of the facts will 
help him in his missionary task or that a better impact 
from the West would lighten his task. He works in 
lands where the old social order is crumbling away— 
sometimes imperceptibly but always steadily. The age- 
long sanctions of family and communal life are begin- 
ning to break down, there is social strain from new 
quarters, the old ethics get damaged and destroyed, new 
evils grow. He sees only too acutely that mere ma- 
terial development—buying, selling, and manufacturing 
—will not create a better social order or lead men to 
God. Much less will such conditions as we have sur- 
veyed bring this to pass. He is painfully aware that 
the non-Christian religions are not adequate to the new 
social needs and have nothing to say to them. He 
does not wait to ask whether Christ can meet them, 
whether he should leave social conditions alone, or 
whether Christian leaders should be trained up to deal 
with them. In the everyday work of every mission 
these questions are answered. The missionary does 
not stop at social amelioration, famine and earthquake 
relief, and medical help. He cannot arrest his teach- 
ing or his preaching of Christ the moment it faces 
human greed and heartlessness, or indifference in deal- 
ing with evil. He does not only attack slavery, opium, 
drink, and other evils, where he is sure of acting up 
to the home community consciousness. His standards 
are those of Jesus. | 

That view of life is costly. It calls us to bear the 
world’s pain. The forces that maim life and crush 
the spirit of man should shock like bloodshed and vio- 
lent death. Conscience has to be aroused, example 


86 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


set, pioneer efforts encouraged, facts made known, and 
Japanese, Chinese, and Indian Christians alike helped 
to understand, and to meet, and to solve in the spirit 
of Jesus, the big problems facing them. 


Books FOR REFERENCE AND FURTHER READING 


China in the Family of Nations. Henry Hopexin. George H. 
Doran Co., New York. 1923. $2.00. 

Christ and Labour. C. F. ANDREWs, George H. Doran Co., New 
York. 1924. $1.75. 

Creative Forces in Japan. GALEN M. FisHer. Missionary Edu- 
cation Movement, New York. 1923. Cloth, 75 cents; paper, 
50 cents. 

International Labour Office Reports. International Labour Of- 
fice, 26 Buckingham Gate, S. W. 1. England. 

Moral and Material Progress of India. Government Official Re- 
port, 2s. 6d. England. 

New World of Labour, The. SwuErRwoop Eppy. George H. 
Doran Co., New York. 1923. $1.50. 

Social Problems and the East. FRANK LeNwoop. Edinburgh 
House Press, London. 2s. 6d. 

Statesman’s Year Book, The Macmillan Co., New York. 1924. 
$7.50. 

Women Workers and the Orient. Marcaret E. Burton. Cen- 
tral Committee on the United Study of Foreign Missions, 
West Medford, Mass. Cloth, 50 cents; paper, 35 cents. 


ee 


CHAP PE ReLV 
THE OPENING OF AFRICA 


I 


WITHIN a year of the impetus given to maritime ad- 
venture by the discovery of America, the Pope divided 
between Spain and Portugal all the unknown shores 
on either side of the Atlantic. The uncharted seas and 
the unexplored coast of Africa were the prize of the 
Portuguese, and the gift carried the obligation to plant 
the Cross on the newly-won soil. The ships of Por- 
tugal carried a mixed group of friars, traders, and sol- 
diers with equally mixed results, and such domination 
as was acquired was exercised with scant regard for 
the African. But the days of Portugal’s glory were 
numbered. Other nations were destined to secure mas- 
tery of the seas and the Portuguese soon dropped out 
of the race for supremacy. 

These new conquerors, the English, Dutch, and 
French, brought as few good gifts to the African as 
did the Portuguese. The continent was regarded only 
as a clumsy barrier to be circumnavigated in order to 
reach the riches of India, and occupation was limited 
to the few ports necessary for the convenience of the 
trading fleets to the East. For long, there had been 
commercial intercourse between India and East Africa 
where trading stations had been planted by the Arabs; 
but the west and south coasts were, and remained for 
centuries, an almost unknown region to the outside 
world, 

To these early venturers the great riches of Africa 


were not unknown, but the richer lure of the East 
87 


88 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


could not be dispelled by any stories of African gold 
and ivory, and the few who attempted to penetrate the 
secrets of the continent, though easily overcoming the 
feeble opposition of the African, were baffled and over- 
come by the deadly malaria of the low coastal plains. 

Invasion from without has been the pathway of 
civilization in all times, but the burning sands of the 
great Sahara on the north and the fever-swept coastal 
plains of the tropics made Africa immune from in- 
vading armies; while its mighty rivers which should 
have been the highways of exploration and civilization 
discharged into the seas through malaria-infested sudd 
and swamps and mud shoals which formed almost im- 
passable barriers to any who wouldenter. Thus Africa 
was the last great continent to yield up its secrets. 


I] 


Europe first took note of the resources of tropical 
Africa when the demand for slave labor in the new 
lands across the Atlantic opened up a profitable traffic 
in human flesh and blood. England was the chief of 
sinners in promoting the African slave-trade to Amer- 
ica. Her colonies there were partly carried on at the 
expense of the poor African, and in the hundred years 
preceding 1786 the number of slaves imported into 
British colonies exceeded two million. British inter- 
ests in Africa were mainly centered in the slave-trade. 
Indeed the African slave-trade, as has been mentioned, 
was a coveted prize secured to Great Britain by inter- 
national treaty.’ 

1 Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, see p. 22. 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA 89 


The wretched trade needs no fresh description. 
The bloodshed in Africa and death through the horrors 
of the “middle passage’’ accounted for a far larger 
number of Africans than ever reached the slave fields 
of the new world. In two and a half centuries eight 
million negroes were, “at the lowest computation,” * 
carried across the seas, and it is estimated that about 
forty million more perished through the bloody traffic. 
Bristol, Liverpool, and other British towns laid the 
foundation of their greatness largely on the slave- 
trade with America, There were African slaves in 
domestic service in England as late as 1772—little 
more than one hundred and fifty years ago—when 
Lord Chief Justice Mansfield’s famous judgment de- 
clared that “as soon as any slave sets his foot on 
English ground he becomes free.” Britain abolished 
the slave-trade in 1806 and in 1833 slavery itself was 
declared illegal throughout the British dominions. It 
was not until 1885, however, that the European pow- 
ers, by the Treaty of Berlin, united in declaring that 
the slave-trade was illegal. 

The slave-trade was by no means confined to West 
Africa. Extensive slave raiding had for centuries 
been carried on in East Africa by the Arabs, but by 
the end of the nineteenth century, following on the 
heroic efforts of Livingstone, the Arab trade was 
finally extinguished. Two of Livingstone’s country- 
men, Frederick and John Moir, who fought the Arabs 
and successfully threw trade routes across the tracks 
of the slaver, had no small share in dealing the death- 
blow to the traffic. 


1 Norman Leys, Kenya, p. 25. 


go THE COST OF A NEW WORLD | 


African memory may not vividly recall the slave- 
trade and it is looked on by Europeans as a hideous 
dream of the far past having little relation to the 
problems of Africa today; but two and a half cen- 
turies of inter-tribal slave raiding, with its terror, 
savagery. arson, and murder, carried on to meet the 
demands of the European trader have left permanent 
marks on Africa. Ruthless war became the business 
of life; rum, gin, and firearms the prizes; tribal tradi- 
tion and customs were destroyed; society, even so far 
into the interior as the great lakes, took on a ruthless, 
warlike character, and a century and a quarter has not 
effaced the effect of these things on African life. 
The slave raiders contributed largely to the tribal dis- 
integration which white men found going on in the 
Africa of fifty years ago. Problems of an urgent 
character have been created by the white man for him- 
self and now poetic justice demands his help in their 
solution. 

It is easy to blame slave traders and to pass judg- 
ment on slave owners, but the lessons of the terrible 
traffic are entirely lost unless an effort is made to get 
behind the brutal facts and understand the mentality 
to which such a traffic was possible and defensible. 
The real evils of any policy lie in the principles on 
which it is based, and the reasons which impelled men 
to carry on the slave-trade should, rightly understood, 
be compass and chart in many difficult issues of our 
time concerning primitive peoples. 

The traffic was shared by English, French, Portu- 
guese, Dutch, and Danes. Slave labor was in request 
for sugar, rice, cotton, and tobacco plantations in North 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA 91 


America, the West Indies, and Brazil, and the cotton- 
gin which gave an immense impetus to the American 
cotton trade created a corresponding new demand for 
slaves. “A business destined in the course of time to 
be prohibited by law seemed in the eighteenth century 
to be so important for the development of our manu- 
factures, shipping, and plantations as to receive not 
only national regulation and protection but also a na- 
tional subsidy.” * 

Much of the opposition to the abolition of slavery 
was due to those sordid and selfish motives which are 
opposed to every step in human freedom—even the 
“happiness of the slaves” was urged against aboli- 
tion. But there were in men’s minds very real fears 
of grave consequences. It does not lessen the reality 
of such fears that they are common to all ages and all 
times of change. Fear, which is the want of faith, 
has to be reckoned with in every generation; it is 
really the enemy of all progress. The prosperity of 
the industries of many territories in the new world 
was bound up with a plentiful supply of slave labor, 
and at the whisper of abolition the cry was raised, 
“the country’s colonial trade is in danger.” Rivalry 
of other nations was feared, and the question was 
asked, “(How can we hold our own with the French 
and Dutch?’”’ Ruin was feared at home, and the as- 
sertion was made, “ Liverpool will become a vast Poor 
Law Union.” ‘These were all very real fears and were 
so strong that the primary interest of the poor Afri- 
can could for long get no hearing. The African, 
conscious of suffering a great wrong, had not yet any 

1K, A, Benians, Cambridge Modern History, Vol. VI, p. 187. 


92 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


conception of either political or economic freedom. 
His was a dumb appeal for relief from his sufferings. 
The wrong could only be righted by the wrongdoer. 

The motives governing the exploitation of the slave 
days throw light on the problems of today, for all 
questions concerning Africa touch very closely this 
matter of motive, and these slave days are recalled 
only for the sake of the lessons they teach. In the 
last resort, human relationships resolve themselves into 
an attitude of mind. 


Til 


The opening up of the vast heart of Africa belongs 
to comparatively recent years. What the methods and 
motives of commerce could not effect in the sixteenth 
century, the spirit of exploration, scientific research, 
and humanitarianism accomplished in the nineteenth. 
Mungo Park, Livingstone, Stanley, Thomson, Speke, 
Grant, and others opened up the great interior of the 
continent and revealed it as a land of broad fertile 
uplands, huge lakes, and great rivers. Its potential 
wealth captured the imagination of Europe, the race 
for possession began, and “ before the meeting of the 
Conference at Berlin [December, 1884 to February, 
1885] the foundations of the German Empire in Af- 
rica were already laid; the outlines of the vast French 
empire in the north had begun to appear; and the curi- 
ous domination of Leopold of Belgium in the Congo 
Valley had begun to take shape.’ * Great Britain was, 
of course, well in the race, and occupation proceeded 

1 Ramsay Muir, The Expansion of Europe, p. 170. 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA 93 


so vigorously that at the beginning of the twentieth 
century the flag of one or other of the European coun- 
tries flew from Cape Town to Cairo, and from Sene- 
gal to Zanzibar. ‘The sole exceptions of Abyssinia and 
Liberia only accentuated the completeness of the Euro- 
pean partition of Africa. 

The partition and subsequent opening-up of the 
continent were closely linked with the rapid industrial 
development of Europe. That development demanded 
new sources of supply of those raw materials which 
are produced in tropical countries—cotton, oil, rubber. 
River, road, and railway transport made the inner 
tableland accessible to all the contacts of the modern 
world, and the swift transition has almost no parallel 
in history. The African has in half a lifetime taken 
a flying leap from age-long primitive tribal life into a 
world in which he has to adjust himself to two thou- 
sand years of western progress. “ The horn of the 
motor lorry, the whistle of the steam engine, the buzz 
of the steam saw, the rattle of the crushing mills sound 
where his fathers only heard the roar of the lion and 
the chatter of parrots and monkeys.” * 

The new life is directed by the white man. There 
are great crops on the white man’s vast plantations— 
cotton, coffee, sisal, tobacco, rubber; strange new occu- 
pations—mining, planting, railroad building, construc- 
tion of motor highways; irksome new impositions on 
the African that he does not understand—taxes, forced 
labor, limitation of movement, and relegation to re- 
serves. His social system is undergoing a vast up- 
heaval, and the African mind is bewildered. 

1 Basil Mathews, The Clash of Color, p. 65. 


94 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


In all social life in Africa the village has been the 
normal unit; the villager had many common rights and 
lived a sort of communal life. The land belonged to 
the village or the tribe; private ownership was vir- 
tually unknown in primitive society and when chiefs 
parted with the land or expropriated it, the elementary 
rights of the peoples were really taken away. Author- 
ity in primitive Africa rested on tribal law, and the 
fountain of justice lay in the opinion of the tribe or 
the village. Men and women had well-defined duties 
and responsibilities. The fear of spirits has for ages 
dominated life; and the African mind is in perpetual 
servitude to unknown forces which pervade the whole 
material world. Natural phenomena and facts of sci- 
ence terrify him and the evil in life far outweighs the 
good. Two thousand years behind western civiliza- 
tion, Africans in tropical Africa are given ten years 
instead of ten centuries to adapt themselves to twen- 
tieth century conditions. 


IV 


The immense silent pressure of changing circum- 
stances on the African can hardly be realized. The 
new contacts and the interdependence of higher and 
lower civilizations have raised far-reaching issues both 
for white and black. These issues lie in the conception 
of the future position of the African in his own land. 
For good or ill Africa has become an annex of Europe. 
The fortunes of its people are controlled by and de- 
pend on the policy of European governments—British, 
French, Portuguese, and Belgian. The future of 


a 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA 95 


Africa depends on how that control will be exercised. 
Four big problems loom on the horizon—land, labor, 
taxation, and education. Each of these appears in 
varying forms in different parts of Africa. Their 
presentation would require more than one volume on 
each. They may, however, be summed up as the ad- 
justment of life to new conditions, and opposing points 
of view may be conveniently and quite briefly illus- 
trated from events in East Africa, which has recently 
engaged a large share of public attention and where 
all four problems are urgent. 

The valuable and informative Report of the East 
Africa Commission presented to Parliament in April, 
1925 * only emphasizes the extremely imperfect nature 
of our information regarding the problems of the Af- 
rican continent. With regard to land, labor, and edu- 
cation, we are still at the stage of groping inquiry. In 
the debate on the Report, in the House of Lords,’ this 
was recognized by Lord Balfour who, on behalf of 
the Government, announced the appointment of a Com- 
mittee of Civil Research for the careful and scientific 
study of such questions. Any discussion of the prob- 
lems is liable to be misunderstood as an attack on the 
white man in Africa. Nothing is further from the 
writer’s mind. The white man in Africa is just like 
the white man everywhere—no better and no worse— 
but it is his misfortune to be faced with problems of 
an extraordinarily difficult character; where there is 
fault, it lies in the system. 

These social and industrial problems are more 
or less common to the whole of tropical Africa; they 

1 Cmd. 2387. 2 30th June, 1925. 


96 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


do not concern the African only; they affect the wel- 
fare of all the people of the continent, European, Af- 
rican, and Asiatic. Governments in Africa are respon- 
sible for the well-being of all the population of what- 
ever race or color. Their task is to secure the coopera- 
tion of all concerned, but mutual understanding and 
confidence are beset with pitfalls, and Government ad- 
ministration is a task of infinite perplexity. Another 
real difficulty is the gap between average colonial opin- 
ion and opinion in the home country based on what is 
believed to be the native point of view. It requires 
unquenchable faith to keep men’s faces Godward in 
such a situation. Africa demands supermen if there 
are to be no serious mistakes and no abuses. 


V 


Let us first look at the problem of land. Chartered 
companies, trading corporations, and individuals have 
from time to time acquired large areas of land in 
different parts of the continent and they all hold some 
kind of legal title. It is now too late to look closely 
into the adequacy of the consideration given to the 
native for his land. In the days of the early settler 
there was room for all, and the acquisition of land by 
the newcomers did not appreciably lessen the huge 
areas on which the natives roamed with their flocks, 
nor affect the plots on which they cultivated their maize 
and mealies, and for long the African had no sense of 
land hunger. But as more white settlers pressed up 
country from the south or entered the interior from 
the coast, it was necessary to define the areas available 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA 97 


for him, and Government took steps to protect the na- 
tive rights in their own lands and to control alienation. 
By means of “ protectorates’’? over new areas or the 
setting aside of “reserves”’ in existing colonies native 
rights were defined. But European encroachment is a 
persistent thing, and in Kenya Colony, for example, it 
has brought about a. crisis. 

The important part of Kenya is the high land of 
the southwestern section which has about the same 
area as England and Wales, with a population equal 
to about half that of Lancashire, of whom only nine 
thousand are Europeans. The plateaux of these High- 
lands, five thousand to six thousand feet above sea 
level, are arable in character, and the climate makes the 
territory suitable for white settlement. Great areas of 
this land not in actual native occupation have been 
rapidly alienated by the Government to white settlers. 
This policy began in 1900, and within twenty-five years 
11,859 square miles* of the best cultivable land in the 
colony have passed to less than two thousand Euro- 
peans.* The natives, some two million in number, are 
squeezed out from admittedly the best lands on to re- 
serves, the area of which, leaving out desert and in- 
accessible mountain, is estimated at from five thousand 
to six thousand square miles including good, bad, and 
indifferent land. Even at that, the Kenya Africans 
have no legal right in their own land. They have right 
of occupancy against other Africans but no rights of 
ownership or even of occupancy as against the Crown. 


1 Report of East Africa Commission, p. 148. 
2The Census of 1921 gives the number of Europeans occupied 
in some form of agriculture as 1,893. 


98 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


“The Government acquired the absolute ownership of 
the whole by merely behaving as its owner.” 

In Southern Nyasaland a curious situation exists. 
The Report of the East Africa Commission draws at- 
tention to the practise, on private estates there, of 
imposing rent on native residents, and mentions a 
decision of the High Court of British Central Africa 
in 1903 to the effect that the terms of the estate own- 
ers’ Certificate of Claim preserved the customary free- 
hold rights of resident natives. The Commission 
states : * 


We are bound to say that there seems to be grave 
doubt whether the demands for rent at present made 
by many of the estate owners on the resident natives 
are sound in law, and whether the Government is jus- 
tified in enforcing them. . . . We cannot but regard 
it as anomalous that in Southern Nyasaland the ma- 
chinery of Government is being used to impose on 
native residents claims by landowners to rights which 
are, prima facie, not included in their titles, while such 
claims are not enforced in Northern Nyasaland, and 
are excluded in Northern Rhodesia. 


By the “ Uganda Agreement” of 1900 made be- 
tween Sir Harry Johnston and the King and people of 
Buganda, half of the country became Crown land and 
the other half was put at the disposal of the Lukiko 
(Native Council). From the first, native freehold 
title was recognized. ‘‘ Today approximately one in 
every hundred of the population of the Kingdom of 
Buganda is a landlord possessing freehold title to his 

1 Report of East Africa Commission, p. 110. 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA 99 


land.”’* Freeholds vary from a few acres to fifty 
square miles, and the Lukiko has forbidden sales or 
bequests to non-natives. The staple crop of Uganda 
is cotton, and the crop for 1925 is estimated at over 
175,000 bales valued at over $20,000,000. ‘“ The 
bulk of the cotton is produced by peasant cultivators 
on small patches through the use of the hoe,” a system 
the extension of which is urged by the Manchester 
cotton trade. 

The policy of encouragement of native cultivation is 
undoubtedly the best for all parts of Africa. Sir Fred- 
erick Lugard says that “as a cultivator of his own 
land, the African will work harder and produce more 
than he will as a hired laborer, and the progress made 
will be more rapid and permanent, and the output 
cheaper, while labor difficulties do not arise”’;” while 
the Governor of Nyasaland has stated as “ his consid- 
ered opinion that the prosperity of the Protectorate 
depends on the development of its tropical agricultural 
resources . . . principally by the natives themselves 
with European instructors.” ° 

In West Africa a far-seeing administration has pur- 
sued the policy of allowing the land to remain in the 
hands of the African, with the happiest results, and no 
white trader can dispossess the West African of his 
land. ‘ The grant of large blocks of land to conces- 
sionaires, unless uninhabited, is altogether opposed to 
the principle of trusteeship.”’* In Nigeria and the 
Gold Coast great native industries in the cultivation 


1 Report of East Africa Commission, Cmd. 2387, p. 25. 
2Lugard, The Dual Mandate, p. 507. 

3 Report of East Africa Commission, p. 109. 

4Lugard, The Dual Mandate, p. 208. 


100..=60)/-§ THE COST OF ‘A NEW WORLD 


of cocoa and palm-oil have been created. In 1891 
the cocoa crop on the Gold Coast was three quarters 
of a hundredweight, in 1924 1t amounted to 218,000 
tons, worth on an average at least $175 a ton, while 
Nigeria exported in 1922 over $75,000,000 worth of 
kernels and oil. In these territories the African works 
and develops his own soil, but in Kenya the link is 
snapped between the African farmer and his land. 
His relation to the soil is reduced almost to that of a 
serf to the white settler. He can only supply his 
needs by work always controlled by and for the Euro- 
pean. The question is what is to be the position of 
the African in Africa, and the problem shifts at once 
from the land to the man who lives upon it. The 
land policy in Uganda, Nigeria, the Gold Coast, and 
other territories offers one answer: the policy in Kenya 
offers another. 


VI 


It is apparent that the problem of labor is bound 
up closely with that of land. The European popula- 
tion, outside the South African Union, is trivial com- 
pared with the number of Africans, but the native 
population even in areas of greatest density is com- 
paratively small, and in many large territories very 
sparse. It is almost nowhere equal to the potential 
development of the country’s resources. In Uganda, 
Kenya, Tanganyika, Nyasaland, and Northern Rho- 
desia combined the population is only thirteen million, 
while in the whole of the South African Union the 
natives, at the Census of 1921, numbered less than five 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA IOI 


and a half million. It is clear that the policy of en- 
couraging native production must inevitably raise grave 
questions bearing on labor supply for both public and 
private employers. The problem is well illustrated by 
the labor troubles in Kenya Colony. 

As already mentioned, a large part of Kenya con- 
sists of high plateaux suitable for white settlement, 
nearly twelve thousand square miles of which have 
been alienated by the Government to Europeans. This 
area requires black labor for its development. Short- 
age of labor, always a problem, was made more acute 
by the demands of the war, post-war settlement of 
ex-soldiers, and the breaking-up of the large estates 
by those who had acquired them. The Kenya Gov- 
ernment came to the rescue and issued a circular * ex- 
pressing the hope that “by an insistent advocacy of 
(its) wishes an increasing supply of labor will re- 
sult.” * District officers were told that the need could 
not be brought too frequently before native authori- 
ties, and native chiefs were informed: that it was part 
of their duty to advise and encourage all unemployed 
young men to go out to work on the plantations. Fur- 
ther, district officers were to keep a record of chiefs 
who proved helpful and of those who did not, and 
were to report to the Government. The whole thing 
savored of compulsion and, as a consequence of urgent 
representation from various quarters, the Colonial 
Secretary (Mr. Churchill) issued a despatch ° laying 
down two important principles: 


1 October, 1919, Cmd. 873. 

2 An article in The International Review of Missions, October, 
1921, gives fuller information. 

3 September, 1921, Cmd. 1509. 


1o2\) THE, COS? OR AgNE WY WORD 


(1) Beyond taking steps to place at the disposal of 
natives any information which they may possess as to 
where labor is required, and at the disposal of employ- 
ers information as to the sources of labor available for 
voluntary recruitment, the Government officials will in 
future take no part in recruiting labor for private em- 
ployment. 

(2) In regard to compulsory paid work for Govern- 
ment this is to be avoided except when absolutely nec- 
essary for essential services. .. . 


This view is taken strongly in the Report of the 
East Africa Commission,» which lays down that 
“under no circumstances could the British Adminis- 
tration tolerate in any form the principle of compul- 
sory native labor for private profit, be the employer 
native or non-native.” 

In South Africa a big problem concerning labor 
arises out of the industrial development of the native. 
There is in the South African Union a large white 
artisan class which is almost absent from other parts 
of Africa. In the Union one never sees a native en- 
gine-driver or skilled mechanic, rarely even a native 
chauffeur. The highest skilled work is reserved for 
the white, the natives being allowed to engage in cer- 
tain less skilled operations only. But in various other 
parts of Africa natives are becoming the skilled crafts- 
men of the country, and work that is done in South 
Africa only by white men is done efficiently in other 
places by skilled Africans. 

To preserve the monopoly of the white craftsmen in 
the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, a policy of 

uP o187, 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA 103 


industrial segregation was adopted some years ago. 
Certain recent regulations for the limiting of Asiatic 
and native skilled labor were declared by the Courts 
to be ultra vires, whereupon the Union Government 
promoted a Color Bar Bill, tightening the restrictions 
in the three northern provinces, and foreshadowing 
their extension to the Cape Province. The avowed 
purpose is gradually to institute an industrial segrega- 
tion policy throughout the Union. This would be con- 
trary to the traditions of the Cape and to the pledges 
given at the time of the Union. 

The Bill for the time being is dead. It passed the 
House of Assembly, where the Government com- 
manded a majority, but in the Senate the South Afri- 
can party, led by General Smuts, defeated the measure 
(7th July, 1925) by seventeen to thirteen votes.* It 
can be reintroduced in a new Session, and if again 
rejected by the Senate, the Government can Je the 
Bill through in a joint sitting of both Houses, and 
that is evidently their intention. 

The question is not one of segregation of natives 
into reserves, but a limitation of the function of na- 
tives in areas where mixed populations live: it de- 
mands a lower type of labor from the African and 
denies to him the full exercise of any skill he may 
acquire. The result within our time will be that skilled 
labor in South Africa will be forcibly repressed while 
it will be highly developed and general in other parts 
of Africa. Here you have white workers deliberately 
aiming at keeping the African at a lower level of in- 
dustrial and social development than elsewhere. That 

1The Times, ist August, 1925. 


04); THE ‘COST OR AGNEW UW ORED 


is flinging down a glove that will some day be picked 
up, for skilled colored labor in Africa will not appeal 
in vain to colored and skilled labor in the Orient, and 
we may one day witness a colossal industrial world- 
wide struggle on color grounds alone. That raises the 
question whether labor is going to have a truly inter- 
national mind. ‘This is one of the biggest questions 
of our time. 

The mere mention of the South African Color Bar 
Bill conjures up a ghastly problem. The Minister of 
Mines stated in the debate on the Bill in the Cape 
Parliament that the terms of legislation “‘ must be such 
as would prevent the possibility of the recurrence of 
regulations against the Asiatics and natives being de- 
clared ultra vires by the Courts.” * This is self-interest 
and racialism run wild: for those, whether workers or 
capitalists, who seek material advantage over others, 
have failed to find for themselves that ethical standard 
which alone can guarantee progress. Such an attitude 
can ultimately only maintain itself by an act of war. 
Quite apart from the economic futility and stupidity of 
such a policy, we find in the example cited white work- 
ers failing to interpret truly the. value of individual 
life. Christianity above all religions in the world has 
placed the greatest emphasis on human personality, but 
we are utterly failing to grasp that principle if there is 
to be differentiation against labor merely on the ground 
of color. 

East and West Africa represent two land policies 
for Africa: the circular of the Kenya Government and 


1 Mr. Byers, Minister of Mines in Union Parliament, 6th May, 
1925. The Times report. 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA 105 


the Despatch of the Colonial Office set forth two dif- 
ferent attitudes towards labor. The Color Bar in 
South Africa represents a third view. These conflict- 
ing ideals are in grips today. The fundamental issue 
is the same. It is the old one of slavery days: what 
is to be the place and function of the African? Is the 
native to be subordinated to the interests of the white 
man, and is the white man to exploit the native labor? 
Or is the European to foster for the Africans ‘“ com- 
plete freedom in the disposal of their labor, the fur- 
therance of their economic development, and a definite 
progressive policy of training them in responsible self- 


government? ”’ 


Vil 


A third great problem for Africa is taxation. Again 
the case of Kenya is taken for the purpose of illustra- 
tion, although it should be repeated that it is not any 
worse than that of many other colonies. The revenue 
from taxation in Kenya is derived almost equally from 
(1) hut and poll tax, (2) customs duties, and (3) 
miscellaneous sources. While the native is taxed in- 
directly through customs duties, etc., he is mainly 
conscious of a direct heavy hut tax. “A popular 
theory is that the native taxation should be increased, 
the argument being that the more money the native 
is forced to earn for the State, the longer he will have 
to work,” * The hut and poll tax which in 1913-147 
yielded about $857,000 amounted in 1922 to over $1,- 
250,000, equivalent to one third of the total revenue 


1 The Times correspondent, 9th March, 1925. 
2 Quoted from official returns by Norman Leys in Kenya, p. 336. 


106 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


from taxation. What the native gets in return is hard 
to tell. The comparatively small amount of the pro- 
ceeds of native taxation spent in the area in which the 
money is raised has a special bearing on education, 
which will be dealt with in the next chapter. For 
example, the estimated expenditure in Kenya for 1924 
on the education of an African population of almost 
two and a half millions was only $185,000 * as against 
$120,000 on the education of a total European com- 
munity of about ten thousand. In Nyanza Province 
only $250,000 of a hut and poll tax amounting in 
1921-22 to about $1,450,000 (£294,000) was spent for 
all purposes within the province. Mr. F. C. Linfield, in 
a supplementary Memorandum to the Report of the 
East Africa Commission,’ says: “ The Chief Native 
Commission of Kenya, in a paper submitted to us, 
estimated that in 1923 the maximum amount that 
could be considered to have been spent on services 
provided exclusively for the benefit of the native popu- 
lation was slightly over one quarter of the taxes paid 
by them.” Mr. Linfield adds: 


As a concrete example we were informed that in the 
last ten years the Kitui Akamba have paid over a mil- 
lion dollars (£207,749) in direct taxes alone, and 
“that you may travel through the length and breadth 
of Kitui Reserve, and you will fail to find in it any 
enterprise, building, or structure of any sort which 
Government has provided at the cost of more than a 
few sovereigns for the direct benefit of the natives. 
The place was little better than a wilderness when I 


1 Thomas Jesse Jones, Education in East Africa, p. 118. 
2 Report of East Africa Commission, p. 187. 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA 107 


first knew it twenty-five years ago, and it remains a 
wilderness today as far as our efforts are concerned. 
If we left that district tomorrow, the only permanent 
evidence of our occupation would be the buildings we 
have erected for the use of our tax-collecting staff.” 


It is therefore hardly surprising that the Commission 
“ feel that both trade and non-native enterprise should 
in the future pay a larger direct contribution towards 
the revenue of the Colony.” * It has to be borne in 
mind that in addition to the hut tax the natives make 
a substantial contribution to customs and excise, a 
contribution which in 1922 amounted to nearly $2,- 
000,000 (£387,530) for the whole of the Colony.’ 

This practise of spending only a small part of the 
native revenue on native welfare is found all over 
Africa, and in country and municipal locations alike; 
e.g., “ Out of 217 towns reporting to the Secretary for 
Native Affairs in South Africa, for the year 1916-17, 
no fewer than 191 derived more from the native rev- 
enue than they expended on native services. Sixty- 
four towns which received revenue from natives vary- 
ing from $10 to $4,000 frankly returned ‘nil’ as the 
amount of their expenditure on native services.” * 


VITl 


The duty of Government is so to govern as to se- 
cure the well-being and development of the people. 
Economic considerations cannot be the sole guide in 

1 Report, p. 175. 2 Statesman’s Year Book. 


3C. T. Loram in The International Review of Missions, October, 
1921. 


108 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


government. The human factor is the ultimate one, 
and there must be a feeling of disappointment that 
even in such a valuable document as the Report of the 
East Africa Commission the African throughout 1s 
dealt with almost entirely as a labor unit. Our re- 
sponsibility in Africa is “a charge upon the conscience 
and the intelligence of the British people.’’* Great 
Britain is committed to the principle of trusteeship for 
the economic, moral, and social progress of the Afri- 
can. The principle was first laid down by Article 22 
of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which 
stated with reference to what are now known as man- 
dated territories: 


To those colonies and territories which as a conse- 
quence of the late war have ceased to be under the 
sovereignty of the States which formerly governed 
them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able 
to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions 
of the modern world, there should be applied the prin- 
ciple that the well-being and development of such peo- 
ples form a sacred trust of civilization and that securi- 
ties for the performance of this trust should be em- 
bodied in this Covenant. 


The British Government White Paper? says: “ There 
can be no room for doubt that it is the mission of 
Great Britain to work continuously for the training 
and education of Africans towards a higher intellectual, 
moral, and economic level.” The White Paper goes 
on to lay down that “in Kenya Colony the principle 
of trusteeship for the natives, no less than in the man- 


1 The Times, 22nd May, 1925. 
2 Indians in Kenya, 1923, Cmd. 1922. 


THE OPENING OF AFRICA 109 


dated territory of Tanganyika, is unassailable.” This 
is the inevitable corollary of Article 22 of the Cov- 
enant, as such a principle cannot possibly be applied 
to mandated territory without a demand arising in 
course of time for its application to the case of other 
peoples not yet able to stand by themselves. The prin- 
ciple is being brought into effect in the case of man- 
dated territories by the splendid work of the Perma- 
nent Mandates Commission of the League of Nations, 
but no similar body is charged with the duty of seeing 
that it is carried out in non-mandated areas. While 
the Treaty of Berlin delimited spheres of influence and 
“ prescribed the rules of the game of Empire building,” 
the principle of trusteeship had not then been born, 
and no provision was made then or at Versailles for 
working out in all colonies the principles upon which 
backward peoples should be governed. The protag- 
onists of the old and the new ideals stand over against 
each other, and the victory for trusteeship is not yet. 

The problems of Africa have been created by Euro- 
pean penetration, coupled with the growing conscious- 
ness of common ideals and interest on the part of the 
African. These problems are the concern of both 
black and white, and on the cooperation of these two 
groups depends the ultimate solution; but the heaviest 
burden falls on the white man. His shortcomings can 
be read by him who runs, but the real complexity of 
his problem, and his real contribution to the advance- 
ment of the country, are not always so conspicuously 
in the public mind. The situation demands an un- 
biassed study of the facts: only thus can we truly 
understand the responsibility of empire. 


110 | VAR COST) ORGAN EM iW ORES 


All these problems have a special significance for the 
Church’ in its outreach to help Africa.’ +" Weare 
bound as a Christian nation to bring national policies 
to the test of conformity with Christian conceptions of 
life. Fundamental among these is the conception of 
the supreme value of human personality and the worth 
of each individual in the sight of God. We cannot 
without the surrender of our deepest convictions recon- 
cile ourselves to any policy in regard to the natives of 
Africa which contravenes this truth.” * 


Books FOR REFERENCE AND FURTHER READING 


Africa in the Making. H. D. Hooper, Edinburgh House Press, 
London. 2s. 

Africa: Slave or Free? J. H. Harris. E. P. Dutton and Co.,, 
New York. $3.00. ~~ 

Black and White in South-East Africa. Maurice S. Evans. 
Longmans, Green and Co., New York. $2.25. 

Darkwater. W. E. B. DuBots. Harcourt, Brace and Co., New 
York. 1920. $2.00, 

Dual Mandate, The. F. Lucarp, Blackwood, London. 42s. 

East Africa—Report of East Africa Commission. Cmd. 2387. 
H. M. Stationery Office. 3s. 6d. 

Educational Policy in British Tropical Africa—White Paper is- 
sued by Colonial Office. Cmd. 2374. H. M. Stationery Of- 
fice. 2d. 

History of Native Policy in South Africa from 1830 to Present 
Day. E. N. Brooxes. Cape Town, 30 Karrom Street. 15s. 

Kenya. Norman Leys. Hogarth Press, England. 15s. 

Souls of Black Folk, The. W. E. B. DuBors. A. C. McClurg 
Co., Chicago. $1.20. 

Up from Slavery. Booker T. Wasuincton. Houghton Mifflin 
Co., Boston. 1917. 60 cents. 

1 Memorandum to Secretary of State—Labor in Africa and the 

Principle of Trusteeship—approved by thirty-one Societies in the 

Conference of British Missionary Societies, December, 1920. 


CHAPTER) V 
PireowWORLD AT SCHOOL 


Aut the world is learning to read and is taking a dizzy 
leap into the mystic world of letters. The babies of 
the Orient, of Africa, and of the isles of the sea are 
all alike crawling up the lower rungs of the educational 
ladder, while their older brothers and sisters with 
quickened desire are already clumsily stumbling on the 
threshold of the magic realm of books. The signifi- 
cance of the new movement lies in the sudden curve 
of increase after static centuries. When an Arabian 
Government gives a grant for education, men may 
cease to wonder at the swift spread of the educational 
fever. 

Education is one of the biggest factors in human 
progress; the right kind of education always uplifts 
men and women. Types of education must vary with 
stages of civilization, and the question of what is the 
right type for different countries is far too wide for 
discussion here: indeed, the data is not available for 
its answer. But it may be asserted that the end of 
education is to make those who seek it useful mem- 
bers of the community. ‘“‘ We now see,’ says Dr. 
Anson Phelps-Stokes,* “that education involves not 
only formal instruction but the development of all the 
physical, mental, moral, and spiritual powers of youth 
in the interest of service.” 

Man is a spiritual being and his education is a spirit- 
ual enterprise. His highest development is through 


1 Education in East Africa, p. xvi. 
III 


112 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


spiritual conceptions of human life. Such conceptions 
are lacking in many elements in Western society, and a 
pertinent question is whether the West has any real, 
contribution to make to the education of non-Christian 
lands. The material facts of life have colored our own 
educational systems, and have often hindered true de- 
velopment, while much that the West has considered 
educational is inconsistent with moral and spiritual 
growth. A primary question, therefore, is—what is 
education? and it is a matter for satisfaction that so 
many able educators are seeking to find an adequate 
answer, 

Education, whatever it may be, is not a matter of 
organization and system. ‘These, as we shall see, are 
not what matter most in the education of a people, for 
education is the sum of all the forces and influences 
which play on life. But in any consideration of the 
expansion of Christianity one has to consider the ef- 
fect of modern educational systems in non-Christian 
lands, and the complex social and political problems 
they create. 


I 


The introduction of a western system of education 
into the Orient tends to anti-foreign feeling as the con- 
sciousness grows that it is a powerful instrument of 
cultural penetration. This is illustrated by what is 
happening in China as these pages go to press. 

China had a rich language and literature when the 
rude speech of the ancient Britons had not yet been 
reduced to writing. For thousands of years learning 


Dae WORLD ALT SCHOOL 113 


has been revered, the scholar being at the apex of the 
social order; and yet in the modern world China as 
a whole is an illiterate land. 

The result of the Chino-Japanese War in 1894-5 
opened China’s eyes to the futility of the old learning 
against modern scientific knowledge, and the lesson was 
driven home by the enforced acceptance of the terms 
imposed by the Western Powers after the Boxer Rising 
in 1900. Five years later the old system of education 
was abandoned by royal edict, and a ministry of edu- 
cation set up. Modern education in China received a 
further impetus from the Revolution of 1911. While 
in 1910 only one Chinese out of four hundred received 
any education, nine years later one in eighty was at 
school. 

For long, Christian missions had carried on schools, 
and till the end of the nineteenth century they had a 
preponderating share of all modern education in China. 
Missionary education in China is marked by three 
stages. The first was the early years of mission 
schools, when China’s ancient system of education still 
held full sway. Then, as the attitude of the Chinese 
to western knowledge changed, these schools began to 
be appreciated in a new way on account of the excel- 
lent modern education they gave. But a third stage 
came when alongside the mission a national system ot 
modern education inevitably grew up. The national 
system dates from the Edict of 1905, and the number 
of scholars in national schools was soon many times 
the number in all Christian schools, While the total 
number of pupils in all grades receiving Christian edu- 
cation in 1922 was only three hundred and forty-three 


114) THE COST: OR PAU NEW OW OREN 


thousand, the pupils in Government schools and col- 
leges numbered over four and a quarter million. 

The Chinese are by nature scholars, and the new 
educational trail they are blazing will soon reach the 
most remote corners of the land. The stolid Chinese 
youth is becoming a real boy under the influence of 
the modern school; the playground has come to stay; 
and, best of all, the doors of the schools are thrown 
wide open to girls. Many of the business and upper 
class families seek to provide education for their girls, 
and female education even among the poorer people is 
increasingly common. It is not unusual to find mill 
girls and factory hands who are able to read a letter. 
An educated Christian boy desiring to marry a literate 
Christian girl would have little difficulty in finding one. 
Female education is, however, a new thing and only 
touches the young. Very few women over thirty have 
had a modern education. 

The vitality of the new educational movement is 
shown by the fact that amidst the chaos of recent years 
education continued to function. A miracle has been 
worked in the midst of disorder, in face of lack of 
funds and oppression of military autocrats. 

Chinese educators were determined to build up a 
strong Chinese educational system suited to the coun- 
try’s needs. By and by they became conscious that 
there was growing up in their country a dual system 
of education, the one national and non-religious under 
the direction of their own Government, the other con- 
trolled by nationals of other lands, acknowledging no 
allegiance to China, and with clear religious propa- 
gandist objectives. The Chinese wanted a national sys- 


THE WORLD AT: SCHOOL II5 


tem that would develop national consciousness—not a 
mental hotch-potch partly British, partly American, and 
partly Japanese. Up till 1924 there were few signs 
of actual hostility towards the Christian schools. Then 
they met with sharp opposition as the main instrument 
of the cultural penetration of the West, which is re- 
garded as having a political purpose as well as being 
hated for its own sake, and this opposition has rapidly 
grown into a violent anti-Christian sentiment. 

This new development puts Christian schools in a 
very different position from that which they occupied 
a few years ago, and unfortunately the new atmosphere 
of distrust and suspicion has added to this delicate 
situation. China is seething with anti-foreign and 
anti-Christian feeling, and in the matter of education 
she is especially suspicious of foreign aims. One of 
China’s most brilliant young leaders, Mr. T. Z. Koo, 
says: 


A tendency which has emerged very clearly during 
the last two or three years is to emphasize national 
and racial consciousness through education; the lead- 
ers want to create in our students interest and study 
of current political, economic, social and industrial 
plans alongside their education. ‘They are, therefore, 
beginning to question and attack missionary education, 
which takes a young Chinese man at his most forma- 
tive period and puts him through a system of educa- 
tion which they consider alien, and which, therefore, 
denationalizes him.* 


This distrust found expression at the annual meeting 
in 1924 of the National Association for the Advance- 
1 International Review of Missions, April, 1925, p. 161. 


110.) “THE COST) OR RAGNE Wi WORD 


ment of Education, at which most of the larger Chinese 
colleges and universities were represented, about one 
thousand educationists being present from all parts of 
the country. The meeting was by no means merely a 
demonstration against the West. Much constructive 
work was done, looking towards a compulsory system 
of national education affording facilities for all stu- 
dents up to the highest university standard. The out- 
look of those present was intensely national. While 
the excellent work of mission schools was fully recog- 
nized and the conviction was expressed that the Chinese 
could not yet dispense with their help, there was clearly 
a strong feeling that these schools should be brought 
under the control of a national board of education. 
Resolutions were passed urging action in the direction 
of restricting educational activities conducted in China 
by foreigners, prohibiting foreigners from establishing 
any more educational institutions, and providing that 
foreign schools should be turned over to the Chinese 
within a reasonable period. Whatever action the Gov- 
ernment may take—and it is improbable that it will 
take any action for some time—the proposals are a 
clear hint to Christian missions to consider the situa- 
tion and adjust their policy to it. If their schools con- 
tinue to be regarded as instruments of a foreign cul- 
ture, and not purely Chinese, their day is over. 

It is becoming increasingly evident that if Christian 
schools and colleges are to find a permanent place in 
the educational system of China, it will only be because 
their educational contribution is so superlatively good 
that it cannot well be dispensed with, and because at 
the same time they are offering something which is 


THE WORLD AT SCHOOL 117 


unique in nature, namely the building up of a strong 
moral and religious character, and the development of 
public-spirited citizenship. If this goal is to be reached 
by the Christian forces at present available, it will prob- 
ably demand the closing down of a large number of 
relatively inefficient schools, and the concentration upon 
such as can be adequately manned and equipped. 

However, it matters not so much whether there be 
few or many schools, or even how good they are, as 
how rapidly they divest themselves of their foreign 
character. They must become, in the words of the 
Report on Education in China,’ “more efficient, more 
Christian, and more Chinese.’ ‘The Christian school 
“can furnish in the new life of China a force that can 
come from no other source. It can determine the char- 
acter of the part China will play in the drama of inter- 
national life ’ and the place it will take in the expansion 
of Christianity in the Orient. 


i 


In India we have an example of the bearing of edu- 
cation on national aspirations. That country has a 
national system of education which had its origin in 
the Dispatch issued by Lord Macaulay in 1854. While 
it was not Macaulay’s design, the Minute marked the 
interpenetration of two great cultures. Alexander 
Duff had already founded a college for giving to In- 
dians an English education steeped in the Christian 
religion. Duff’s success ‘‘ marked out educational mis- 
sionary work as the most powerful method of approach © 

1 Christian Education in China, 1922, p. 15. 


118, THE COST oORVADNE We WORLD 


to Hinduism in its higher places.’ * It was inevitable 


that by and by Indians so educated should turn again 
to the riches of their own heritage in Indian history, 
religion, and literature, and.that later the two cultures 
should come into sharp collision. 

It was perhaps still more inevitable that a study of 
western history, and an acquaintance with the writings 
of Burke, Mill, Carlyle, and Herbert Spencer should 
give rise to a growing desire for self-government. 

India’s national aspirations make the question of an 
adequate educational system of paramount importance. 
The country wants responsible self-government, and 
without widespread education of the right kind it can- 
not realize that aim. 

Education in India is top-heavy in character and too 
limited in scope. Its outstanding feature is the com- 
paratively large number receiving university education 
—sixty-six thousand students in fourteen universities 
(one quarter of the total being in Christian institu- 
tions), while about ninety-three per cent of the total 
population are unable to read or write. The doorway 
to university education is a knowledge of English, and 
as only one in every two hundred of the whole popu- 
lation knows English, it is from a very small section 
of the community that sixty thousand young men 
crowd into the universities. There are two special evils 
in India’s university system. In the first place the 
system is foreign, based on western curricula. A dis- 
tinguished Indian Christian? speaking out of his own 


1C,. F. Andrews, The Renaissance in India, p. 35. 
2 Shoran Singha in Christian Education in Africa and the East, 


p. 69. 


THE WORLD AT SCHOOL 119 


experience says: “‘ We were out of touch with the mas- 
ter-minds of our own country . . . there was no room 
left to study and appreciate India’s past literature and 
culture.” Secondly, as one result of making English 
the medium of university education there is far too 
little higher education for women. There is only one 
English-speaking Indian woman to every fifteen men 
who have an English education, and only one thousand 
women are found in college out of all India’s millions. 
But no country can be rightly equipped for self-gov- 
ernment without adequately educated women leaders, 
and the intellectual gulf between the men and women 
in India is a peril in this time of social and political 
change. The facts make a strong appeal to British 
Christian women to increase the splendid help in the 
matter of higher education which they are now afford- 
ing to their sisters in India. The demand for women’s 
education has come, and western women leaders may 
direct into right channels the new intellectual forces 
of womanhood in that wonderful land. 

The West hardly realizes that national conscious- 
ness is not a matter merely of politics; it runs through 
society, colors art and literature, and is as real in the 
Church as in the State. The Government education is 
secular, but the large majority of Christian mission 
schools are within the national system. Such an ar- 
rangement creates acute problems and much discussion 
has raged round the question of compulsory attendance 
at religious instruction in State-aided schools. With 
the growth of national consciousness among the stu- 
dent body the cry came for liberty of choice, and the 
discussion has resulted in two gains. It has emanci- 


20°) DHE COST ORAL WilW ORT 


pated the missionary mind from false ideas of control 
in Christian education, while the Indian has discovered 
the real value of Christian teaching. The fears created 
by the conscience clause in operation in Ceylon and 
some parts of India which provided for exemption of 
the student, if desired, from religious instruction in 
State-aided schools, have been found groundless. The 
clause has created asubtle psychological change. From 
the student mind the red rag of compulsion has dis- 
appeared, and the missionary teacher has found that, 
given leave to choose, the pupil is easily attracted by 
the right teaching of Christianity. 

An ignorant people can never be really free. While 
the middle and upper classes in India are educated in 
as great a proportion as those of western lands, the 
great masses of the people are still largely illiterate, 
only about seven per cent being able to read and write. 
Fewer scholars are enrolled in all India than in the 
little country of Japan. Even such primary education 
as is given is defective. Of the children at school no 
fewer than ninety per cent are in the lowest primary 
classes. Those who never reach a higher standard very 
soon lapse into illiteracy. The weakness of elementary 
education in India is a real peril to the social and 
political development of the country. It makes for 
social and intellectual feudalism to have in any land at 
one end of the educational scale a comparatively large 
number of university men and at the other the over- 
whelming masses of the people absolutely illiterate. 

But mere literacy would not carry Indian aspira- 
tions very far. Education has got to be conceived 
afresh in order that it may fit India for freedom. The 


THE WORLD AT SCHOOL I2I 


difficulties are many—grinding poverty, constant toil, 
and social and religious differences. There is no such 
public opinion as prevails in China and Japan in favor 
of general education. The Provincial Governments 
find the task utterly unwieldy, and the danger is that 
“ statesmanship and Christian love alike are to be de- 
clared bankrupt.” In such a situation there is indeed 
a challenge to the missionary forces in India and to 
the forces behind them in the homeland, to give to 
India, through Christian education, that full free spirit 
of Truth on which alone freedom can be built. 


Ill 


The position of education in Japan raises the large 
issue of the relation of Christianity to a national secu- 
lar system of education. 

One of the most literate countries in the world today 
is the far eastern long-closed land of Japan where sixty 
years ago modern education was entirely unknown. In 
1864 a young Japanese, Joseph Neesima, stole away 
from his country at the peril of his life, reached Bos- 
ton, Mass., was befriended and given the best educa- 
tion New England could afford. He set aside tempt- 
ing opportunities of political preferment and made a 
great resolve that he would found a Christian College 
in his own land. Within ten years he gave Japan her 
first college: the ‘ Doshisha’’ (One Purpose). The 
rapid progress of the Sunrise Kingdom is due largely 
to that passion for education exemplified in Neesima. 
Education has been pursued with such energy that 
Japan has now a great national school system, educa- 


122) ‘THE COST OFA NEW -WORED 


tion being compulsory, and it has as large a propor- 
tion of children in the elementary schools as England 
and Wales and quite as high a standard. Japan has 
twelve thousand busy technical schools teeming with 
more than a million eager young men and women, and 
five universities (the oldest dating only from 1877.) 
with a staff of over one thousand, and nearly ten thou- 
sand students—about the same number as are now 
attending the four great Scottish universities. The 
story of education in Japan contains more than one 
example of a lad walking three hundred miles to enter 
high school, and, in face of extreme poverty and diffi- 
culty, fighting his way through. It is said that five or 
even ten times as many men as can be admitted take 
the stiff entrance examination to the high schools, and 
after a hard day’s work thousands of apprentices and 
artisans are found in the evening schools. 

The Japanese scholar is a real seeker after truth. 
He breaks loose easily from old authority and faces 
all modern thought, but he retains a veneration for 
the great past of his nation and is intensely national- 
istic and patriotic. His old world lives on, making a 
background against which the new intellectual life is 
lived. 

Education is the most important instrument in the 
social development of any land; but the system of edu- 
cation in Japan is secular, while education is fundamen- 
tally a spiritual enterprise. To exclude religion from 
it is to omit the greatest factor in setting worthy tradi- 
tions and creating motives, ideals, and standards for a 
people. Japan’s splendid educational development con- 
stitutes a challenge to Christianity to inject into the 


THE WORLD AT SCHOOL La? 


thought currents which flow from the schools the spirit 
and principles of Jesus Christ. 

The Christian contribution to the educational fer- 
ment in Japan is, however, very feeble if regard is 
had to numbers alone. “ The total enrollment of the 
Christian schools is only fifty thousand, over against 
a total of eleven million in the Government schools.’ 
The few Christian schools are, however, more impor- 
tant than the number of pupils would indicate, and 
none who are concerned with the real welfare of Japan 
can overlook them. They have a great contribution 
to make. But they must never be the medium of a 
foreign culture; they must ever become more Japanese. 
The task of the Christian school is to lead the way in 
the conception of education, and to supply highly 
trained, thoroughly Christian teachers. If Christian- 
ity is the hope of the world, its influence in shaping 
educational development is supremely important and 
the opportunity of the Christian teacher unrivaled. 


IV 


Education is a prime factor in the development of 
primitive peoples. It is a sign for good that African 
education bulks large in Christian statesmanship in 
these days.” “The main purpose of education is to 


1 Galen Fisher, Creative Forces in Japan, p. 157. 

2Two invaluable contributions to the understanding of the 
problem of African education have been made by the Commission 
sent to West Africa in 1921 and to East Africa in 1923 by the 
Phelps-Stokes foundation under the leadership of Dr. Thomas 
Jesse Jones, and readers are earnestly commended to the study of 
the reports issued by these commissions. 


124) DHE COST OR WA WINN VV Ory 


fit a man for life, and therefore in a civilized com-: 
munity to fit him for his place as a member of that 
community.” * But few regard the African as a pos- 
sible member of “a civilized community ”’; he is simply 
not thought of in that way. So far as education of 
the African in Africa has gone, it is fortunate that it 
has been almost exclusively in the hands of mission- 
aries. True education demands a passionate faith in 
the possibilities of those sought to be educated and a 
great insight into their needs; and the missionaries, 
more than any other class, understand the African 
mind, appreciate what is best in African customs, tra- 
ditions and folk-lore, and realize the problems arising 
from the aggressive permeation of European civiliza- 
tion. 

If the necessity of education for the African is 
recognized at all, the only safe course is to make such 
an effort to’ train him as will make this education a 
force for good and not a peril. If the African is to 
occupy his right place in his own land, education has 
to be adapted to his need, and the right kind of educa- 
tion can only be undertaken if the unchanging funda- 
mental problems of Africa are not obscured. Modern 
thought is much at the mercy of the newsmonger, and 
the last “incident” or some hectic but transient situa- 
tion makes better “ copy”’ than the great drab problem 
of what is to be the place of the black man in his own 
land and among the nations. <A colored prize-fighter 
gets more space in the press of the world in one day 
than all the problems of Africa put together get in one 
year. 

1 Adult Education Committee Final Report, Cmd. 321, 1919. 


THE WORLD AT SCHOOL 125 


In considering the kind of education to be given to 
the African far too many people still think of him as 
one who has to be trained by a kind of inferior educa- 
tion to be a better hewer of wood and drawer of water 
for white people, and not for Africa, The improving 
of a mere human tool does not deserve to be called 
“education.” It is essentially the same kind of train- 
ing as we give to a horse or a mule. 

The great failure of education in Africa, so far, has 
been in adaptation to the real needs of the community. 
Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones* sets forth the modern ob- 
jectives of African education as a sound development 
of character through religion, health, agricultural and 
industrial skill, improvement of family life, and recrea- 
tion. Emphasis has in the past been laid on education 
suitable for clerical occupations instead of on such fun- 
damental training as is required for self-development, 
say, of an agricultural community. Education, rightly 
considered, enables a man to regulate his bodily health, 
to occupy his place in the community, and to use his 
leisure and opportunities aright. In Africa hygiene 
must receive a large place in all education. “ The rav- 
ages of disease among natives are terrible, the infant 
mortality in certain areas [in South Africa] reaching 
the appalling figure of four hundred and fifty per thou- 
sand, yet the study of hygiene and instruction in the 
rearing of infants are undertaken as a school subject in 
not more than fifteen per cent of the schools.” There 
is, however, increasing recognition of the importance 


1In Education in East Africa. 
2C. T. Loram in International Review of Missions, October, 
1921, 


126. THE COsT OF A. NEW: WORLD 


of training African youth to assist in the overwhelming 
task of improving health and sanitary conditions. 

The language of instruction ranks with the subject 
taught as a means of education. The European lan- 
guage of the governing nation is the means of uniting 
Africa with the great civilized world. It will, how- 
ever, be a tragedy if the African vernaculars are not 
wisely conserved. -Both are necessary to the fullest 
development of the Continent, but, with full apprecia- 
tion of the European language, the use of the native 
tongue “is immensely more vital in that it is one of 
the chief means of preserving whatever is good in na- 
tive customs, ideas, and ideals, and thereby preserving 
what is more important than all else, namely, native 
self-respect.” * The maze of language and dialect 
found in Africa is unparalleled in any other country. 
There are some eight hundred known languages of 
which only about one hundred and eighty have been 
reduced to writing, but many of the languages and 
dialects are spoken by only a handful of people, and 
the number of dialects is steadily decreasing. One of 
the greatest needs of African education is a thorough 
survey of African languages so that the present con- 
fusion may be corrected and all that is best in the 
many vernaculars conserved. 

Nowhere is the provision for native education ade- 
quate. In the Cape Province of the Union only twenty 
per cent of native children of school age are at school. 
In the various British colonies the situation varies very 
much, descending rapidly from the Cape Province 
standard. An outstanding exception is the Gold Coast, 

1 Education in East Africa, p. 10. 


THE WORLD AT SCHOOL 127 


where educational activities are “ noteworthy for their 
efficiency and extent, especially in comparison with 
those of other colonies.” 

Education of girls and women is everywhere gener- 
ally neglected, and the enrollment of boys in schools 
outnumbers that of girls many times, especially in the 
more backward colonies. This is due to some extent 
to the opposition of natives themselves to the education 
of girls, but it has to be overcome if the best kind of 
African home life is to be built up. 

The new educational policy in British Tropical 
Africa, as outlined in the Memorandum? submitted to 
the Secretary of State by the Advisory Committee set 
up by the Colonial Office, will mark a new day for 
Africa if it is seriously translated into practice. The 
Committee has formulated the broad principles which 
in its judgment should form the basis of a sound edu- 
cational policy, and in their Memorandum it is laid 
down that: 


Government welcomes and will encourage all volun- 
tary educational effort which conforms to the general 
policy. But it reserves to itself the general direction 
of educational policy and the supervision of all educa- 
tional institutions by inspection and other means. Co- 
operation between Government and other educational 
agencies should be promoted in every way. 

Education should be adapted to the mentality, 
aptitudes, occupations, and traditions of the various 
peoples, conserving as far as possible all sound and 
healthy elements in the fabric of their social life; adapt- 
ing them where necessary to changed circumstances 


1 Cmd. 2374, 1925. urea 





YY 


Gee at EON 
A 





ee 


yy 
a“ 


128.) THE COSTVOR A NEW WORLD 


and progressive ideas, as an agent of natural growth 
and evolution. Its aim should be to render the indi- 
vidual more efficient in his or her condition of life, 
whatever it may be, and to promote the advancement 
of the community as a whole through the improvement 
of agriculture, the development of native industries, the 
improvement of health, the training of the people in 
the management of their own affairs, and the inculca- 
tion of true ideals of citizenship and service. It must 
include the raising up of capable, trustworthy, public- 
spirited leaders of the people, belonging to their own 
LACey i 


Many rare ideals have found a tomb in a Parlia- 
mentary Paper, but the Advisory Committee which 
makes these recommendations is a continuing body 
whose duty it will be to see that the principles laid 
down are given the fullest consideration in every Afri- 
can Crown Colony, and the hope may be cherished 
that we are not once more “doping” conscience by 
lip service to great principles. Everyone who cares for 
the expansion of Christianity in tropical Africa is called 
on to take all possible steps to secure that the sugges- 
tions in the Memorandum are carried out in the fine 
spirit in which they were laid down. Pioneers in edu- 
cation could hardly find a more attractive task. 


Vv 


In more advanced countries many factors outside the 
school contribute to the education of the people. The 
church, the press, the shop, the factory, sport, all play 
their part. So, also, in other lands every new element 


THE WORLD AT SCHOOL 129 


in environment, every contact with other races, every 
new impact on life is subtly but surely molding thought 
and shaping outlook. Indeed, the whole world today 
is a whispering gallery, and education is far wider than 
the schools. Self-determination cannot be sought by 
Europeans or racial equality by Orientals without re- 
action everywhere to these ideas. The peril is in the 
kind of mind on which the ideas react. The wrongs 
or supposed wrongs of a people and the irksome pres- 
sure of European governments, easily throw men into 
the arms of any agitator who comes along. Indigenous 
leadership of one kind or another is inevitable, and if 
the Christian schools have not provided other and bet- 
ter leaders, the white man has no right to turn round 
and blame the Asiatic or the African. 

One of the great facts of the recent development of 
education in non-Christian lands is the opening of the 
doors of knowledge to women. Sudden changes have 
taken place in the lives of the girls who have passed 
through schools, the tendency on the part of educated 
young women everywhere being to revolt against ob- 
servance of old customs. In their wildest dreams the 
veiled women of the Turkey of 1914 could hardly have 
foreseen a day when Moslem girls would glide along 
the corridors of the University of Constantinople, in 
the city of the Caliph himself. Today the university 
takes little notice of what has become a normal factor 
in its life. In Egypt, under the shadow of the ancient 
Azhar, forty-five thousand girls are receiving instruc- 
tion in State-aided colleges and schools, with the result 
that Moslem women have put forward proposals for the 
reform of the marriage laws. Educated women in 


130 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


Persia and Korea run women’s newspapers. In India, 
where women are so markedly unaggressive in claim- 
ing “ rights,’”’ some women students hold political con- 
gresses and demand for their sex the right to sit on all 
representative bodies. A new class is emerging in all 
eastern lands, the women who earn their own living 
as teachers, typists, nurses, bank clerks, telephone girls, 
etc. The Christian Church is in no small measure re- 
sponsible for all these changes. She was the pioneer in 
girls’ education and must seek so to guide the new 
movement that these educated women shall become real 
leaders of their own people in solving many of the 
difficult problems of womanhood and childhood in their 
own lands. 

There is another subtle and widespread form of 
education going on all the time through racial contact 
in western colleges and universities. Sixty years ago, 
the first Chinese students arrived in America—coming, 
of course, from mission schools. These were the van 
of a great trek to the colleges of America, Britain, 
Germany, France, and Belgium. Now they come in 
increasing numbers. In October, 1924 there were, for 
example, one thousand five hundred and seventy-three 
Asiatics entered in British universities or university 
colleges; and there were over two thousand Chinese in 
the United States alone, of whom one in ten was a girl 
student. These students coming to Europe or Amer- 
ica are hardly prepared for the shock of their first 
contact with the defects of western civilization. While 
the Church in the mission field has its own responsi- 
bility in the matter, there lies on the Churches of the 
West the task of bringing Oriental and African stu- 


THE WORLD AT SCHOOL 131 


dents into contact with the best sides of western life 
in order that these men and women returning to their 
own lands may carry with them a richer life rooted in 
respect and love for the person of Jesus. 

Education in almost every land today is the grow- 
ing concern of governments; indeed the day when 
governments “cared for none of these things ” is rap- 
idly passing. This new care for education brings it 
within the range of national policy, and one danger in 
West and East is that its healthy development may be 
affected adversely by narrow national or even sectional 
interests. After centuries of accumulated learning the 
position of education in the world today is a matter of 
grave concern, and it is seriously imperilled by national 
aims. Our own generation is groping after true edu- 
cational principles, and those who care for the progress 
of mankind are confronted with the task of strengthen- 
ing sound educational policies everywhere. 

Any consideration of education in Asia and Africa 
raises questions of the first magnitude for educators 
in Christian countries. How is the West going to 
educate its own children that they may live worthily 
in a world created by such formative influences as we 
have been discussing? ‘The increasing impacts and re- 
actions of East and West make this an urgent and 
crucial question. World leadership is being made in 
the schools of all lands whether these be Christian, 
non-Christian, or anti-Christian. There never was a 
time when international leadership was more unequally 
yoked for a great task, and yet, however traditions, 
ideals, and cultures differ, all must learn to pull to- 
gether. Friendship and fellowship are demanded on a 


132 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


difficult basis, but unless they can be created, there can 
be no true understanding between peoples. One of the 
greatest problems of our changing world is how to 
educate our young people that they may achieve an 
international fellowship that will stand the strain of 
such diversity of faith and ideal. The new spirit of 
education is abroad in India, China, Japan, and Africa, 
and it is just as steadily permeating the Moslem world. 
Here is a great region of human activity world wide 
in its reactions. Is it to be outside the expansion of 
Christianity ? 

Every one must regard with reverence the spectacle 
of unlettered Africans, of Orientals living in compara- 
tive ignorance of the great modern world, of clois- 
tered daughters of the Indian zenana, of the walled-in 
sisters of China, suddenly entering, through modern 
education, into the wonders of history, science, and 
literature. The mind is awed by the thought of the 
untold possibilities which modern education brings to 
such people. We can see the almost inevitable pres- 
sure towards westernization, the crushing of indigenous 
culture, the risks of narrow nationalism, the danger of 
arousing fierce intellectual collisions consequent on the 
penetration of new cultures, the clash of opposing in- 
terests, and the rivalries of trade and commerce. And 
we must fearlessly seek to find out whether Christian- 
ity can saturate education in East and West with the 
full free spirit of truth, and make it vibrate with the 
dominating message of Love and Service which is the 
greatest liberating force we can offer to mankind. 
Surely education is an internal necessity of the Chris- 
tian movement everywhere. In every land the mind 


THE WORLD AT SCHOOL 133 


of youth is on trek. The Christian Church may, pro- 
vided her gifts are national in sympathy and outlook, 
wise in conception, and offered in the spirit of service 
and cooperation, take as large a share as she can han- 
dle in molding the spirit of education in any country. 
The opportunity is amazing and the possibilities are 
inestimable, for there are no undeveloped resources in 
the world comparable with the undeveloped human 
mind. 


Books FOR REFERENCE AND FURTHER READING 


Christian Education in Africa and the East. Student Christian 
Movement, England. 2s. 6d. 

Christian Education in China. China Educational Commission. 
Committee of Reference and Counsel, 25 Madison Avenue, 
New York. $2.00. 

Education in Africa. Report prepared by T. J. Jones. African 
Education Commission. Phelps-Stokes Fund, 297 Fourth 
Avenue, New York. 1922. Cloth, $2.00; paper, $1.50. 

Education in East Africa. Report prepared by T. J. Jones. 
Phelps-Stokes Fund, 297 Fourth Avenue, New York. $2.25. 

Education Policy in British Tropical Africa. Cmd. 2374. 1925. 
2d. 

Village Education in India. The report of a Commission of In- 
quiry. Oxford University Press, New York. 1923. 85 cents. 


CHAPTER VI 
THE BREAK-UP OF PAN-ISLAM 


OnE of the outstanding factors in any consideration 
of the problems concerning the expansion of Chris- 
tianity in the post-war world is the failure of the other 
old religions to adjust themselves to the social and 
political changes of.the times. Whether Christianity 
itself has any sure word for mankind will be discussed 
in the concluding chapters of this book. The present 
chapter deals with recent happenings in the world of 
Islam, by way of inquiring into the ability of the one 
great non-Christian faith which actively seeks world 
dominion to meet the needs of the new situation. 


Like the writer, most visitors to Damascus make 
an adventurous climb to the roof of a sort of lean-to 
shop against a doorway in the old part of the 
Great Mosque. In this perilous journey all the lusty 
Damascenes within sight assist—a motley, picturesque 
group, developing subsequently into an increasing 
crowd bent on baksheesh. The old doorway has a 
magnificent lintel in the purest classical style on which 
in crude and cramped Greek letters—evidently the rude 
work of a later time—the visitor reads these stirring 
words of the 145th Psalm: “ Thy kingdom [O Christ], 
is an everlasting kingdom and Thy dominion endureth 
throughout all generations.” 

That doorway illustrates the strange history not only 
of the Great Mosque but of much of Islam. Part of 
the present building was crowded with the worshipers 

134 


THE BREAK-UP OF PAN-ISLAM 135 


of Jupiter in the days when Paul, with sightless eyes, 
was led into Damascus, It was subsequently converted 
by royal decree into a Christian church. After the 
coming of Mohammedanism and the conquest of Da- 
mascus—for some time the seat of the caliphate—the 
building offered the strange spectacle of Christian 
church and Mohammedan mosque under the same roof; 
but in the course of time it became altogether a Moslem 
mosque and is now to Mohammedans one of the most 
sacred spots in that holy city. The mosque and its 
courts are crowded at times with as many as thirty 
thousand worshipers. Islam arose after Christ, and 
its greatest conquests were in lands that had become 
Christian territory. Even the cradle of Christianity 
has for hundreds of years been a Moslem country. 

Many of the great passages in history are concerned 
with the rise and decay of religions, and in the Islamic 
world another of these chapters is now being written, 
While all down the centuries Christianity has been rent 
and torn by internal dissensions, the Church being far 
too often more bent on upholding some cherished 
dogma than on following Christ, Islam, scattered over 
three continents, has, however much Sunnis and Shias 
may have hated each other, for twelve hundred years 
presented a solid front to the outside world, united in 
a common bond that transcends language, race, custom, 
and political allegiance. Today the whole Moslem 
world is thrown into confusion by the breakdown of 
its age-long unity, a breakdown to which various in- 
fluences have contributed. 


1336 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 
I 


When in 1869 the Suez Canal was opened, one of 
the great cross-roads of the world was formed astride 
the ancient home of Islam, and a new era in Moslem 
lands became inevitable. Slowly new influences and 
new thoughts began to penetrate. Moslem peoples had 
perforce to look the modern world in the face, and as 
more and more they felt the pulse of its life, their 
outlook was inevitably turned westward. The swift- 
ness of this new orientation is sometimes startling. 
Little more than a quarter of a century has elapsed 
since the conquest of the Sudan. Today the new gen- 
eration of Berberi and Sudanese are the prized and 
efficient domestic servants of the Near East, and are 
trusted with any responsibility from nursing babies to 
driving ‘ Fords,” 

The World War rapidly hastened the process of 
facing westwards. Formerly armies passed through 
Moslem countries, and campaigns were lost and won, 
without deflecting by a hairbreadth the manner of life 
of the people or stirring a new thought. That tradi- 
tion was broken in 1914. In the War the Moslem 
world was divided against itself; its members were 
ranged on different sides with Christian allies, and even 
an appeal by Turkey, with the caliphate behind it, en- 
tirely failed to stir up a “holy war” against the un- 
believer. The Moslem seems to have had the feeling 
that there was something incongruous in an alliance 
for a “holy war” between Moslem Turks and Chris- 
tian Germans. 

Moslem troops from India came in their thousands 


THE BREAK-UP OF PAN-ISLAM 137 


to the western battle fronts, and returned to their re- 
mote Indian villages with strange new impressions of 
the great big world. They saw that the writ of Islam 
did not run in the powerful West, that men there toler- 
ated all religions, indeed that most folk had none. In 
the Near East there were never less than two hundred 
thousand Egyptian fellaheen in the labor corps of the 
allied armies—building a railway through the desert, 
delivering the fresh waters of the Nile to thirsty Tom- 
mies before Gaza, learning many strange new habits 
from these same Tommies, from “ soccer” fever to a 
craze for the “ movies,’ and all going back to their 
own villages with many dizzy facts of the great world 
penetrating their foggy consciousness. A leading na- 
tionalist in Cairo told the writer that the nationalists 
could have made no appeal to the fellaheen of Egypt 
but for their exposure to close contact with the armies 
of the Empire. 

In the quaint old-world bazaars of any Moslem 
town there flow strange tides of life, and there mingle 
in that fascinating ebb and flow many new things which 
make a visitor think furiously. Probably one of the 
most penetrating new influences in all Moslem lands is 
the cinema. It is dispossessing the unconscious East 
of many time-worn ideas. Charlie Chaplin and Doug- 
las Fairbanks are known to Moslems from Morocco 
to the Straits Settlements: everywhere they draw forth 
the great elemental human emotions; groups of Mos- 
lems in crowded, little, mean picture houses in every 
village of North Africa and the Near East are un- 
consciously learning to laugh and weep with the West. 

Next to the heroes of the cinema the best known 


136. THE; COST OF A NEW WORLD 


name in Moslem lands is Henry Ford; thousands of 
people, who have never seen a car, are producing and 
transporting petrol for it. Not so long ago, in the 
days of the dignified leisure of the camel, the Christian 
stranger was a man apart, whom the Moslem only knew 
as a passing traveler, or through occasional business 
transactions. Motor transport is slowly effecting a 
revolution in human relationships. In place of the old 
incidental contacts, men of all religions and races min- 
gle all the time in almost every relation of life. 

Today the car is ubiquitous. In Palestine before 
the War there were almost no cars; but five years after 
the armistice there were more than four hundred reg- 
istered in Jerusalem alone, and cars are now being 
imported into Palestine at the rate of about three hun- 
dred a year. In 1913 the traveler took three days to 
travel from Jerusalem to Nazareth in a Turkish wagon, 
carrying tents for night and food for day, with a small 
retinue of camp followers in attendance and at least 
one Turkish soldier for protection from robbers. Ten 
years later the writer made the journey easily between 
early breakfast and midday in a sumptuous Hudson 
car, in the sole company of a Moslem driver, the only 
impedimenta being a luncheon basket. The tourist 
taking a casual walk out of Damascus along the desert 
road to the east will hardly be startled to meet a great 
dust-covered car completing the weekly twenty-four 
hour trip from Baghdad to Beirut,* nor will he be 
surprised when in the Haifa train a fellow-countryman 
at his elbow mentions in the most offhand way that he 
left Basra the day before by aeroplane. 


1“ Nairn’s car” has done the journey in 1614 hours. 


THE BREAK-UP OF PAN-ISLAM — 139 


The railway train, though a slowly permeating in- 
fluence compared with the car, began another revolu- 
tion. It attacked the Oriental at a vital point. For 
millenniums he was distinguished by the absence of a 
sense of time. The railway has given a time-sense to 
the dreaming East, for the railway schedule has to be 
followed, even if only in the Eastern’s leisurely way. 

In all this penetration of means of travel far-reach- 
ing mental and social consequences are involved. The 
whole life of the East is being molded by the influences 
that spring from means of rapid transport, and the con- 
sequent multiplying points of contact with the outside 
world. The old leisurely irrelevancy and politeness are 
apparently unalterable, but a vast network of new social 
contacts is being created everywhere, western trade and 
commerce are increasingly aggressive, new watchwords 
and new social ideals and new ethics borrowed from 
the West are slowly permeating Moslem lands. Islam 
has for twelve centuries dwelt in a closed world abso- 
lutely hostile to Christianity. But today the old Mos- 
lem lands can no longer live a sort of semi-cloistered 
existence ; they are swinging out into the great currents 
of the world’s life. 

Not only are the railway, the motor, and the cinema 
making breaches in the old mind of Islam; the school- 
master is abroad. The new contact with the outside 
world provokes a desire to know more about it, and 
one of the big social facts of today is that the whole 
Moslem world is learning to read. Everywhere there 
is a growing desire for modern education. For every 
place in mission or government schools there are eager 
aspirants for entry into the magic world of books. For 


140° THEICOST OP AUNEW WORKED 


these the art of reading the printed page is going to be 
a dizzy leap into a whole new world of ideas. A sig- 
nificant fact is the preference many Moslem parents, 
even in the holy cities of Islam, have for Christian 
schools. The writer saw in a great Christian College 
the son of a high official in Mecca whose special desire 
it was that his boy should receive a Christian education. 
In these schools these young men have Christianity 
presented to them for the first time, they study the life 
and teaching of Jesus, they live and work and play in 
fellowship with Christian boys and Christian masters. 
This subtle social contact is all the time forming a 
pathway for the expansion of Christianity. 

Literate Moslems become omnivorous readers. There 
are probably nearly one thousand Arabic journals. In 
1921 there were forty-six newspapers in Persia. In 
Cairo alone seventy-five newspapers are published, 
some of which are read from Morocco to the Philip- 
pines. All these papers turn the mind to the world 
stage: they are full of strange words, “ reform,’’ “ free- 
dom,” “independence,” ‘self-determination,”’ “ de- 
mocracy,” “ Soviet,” “ Bolshevism.” The disputation 
today is not in the market-place but in the newspaper, 
and “ Islam has become a world of newspapers.” 

In the wake of the newspapers there is a great stream 
of cheap modern literature—mainly translations of 
modern western books—undoubtedly containing much 
declamatory trash but including the best science, his- 
tory, poetry and philosophy. On every hand suggestive 
facts emerge. “ The Chief of the Kashgais, lord of 
thirty thousand black tents on the Persian hills, sub- 
scribes to the London Times and has Reuter’s telegrams 


THE BREAK-UP OF PAN-ISLAM § 141 


translated to him.” * The Government bookshop at 


Baghdad has in two years supplied eighteen sets of the 
Encyclopedia Britannica to Arab customers. 

This new interest in education and literature is ex- 
tending to women. The old ideas of subordination of 
women still hold with tenacious grip, but it is inevi- 
table that if Moslem girls are taught to read, emanci- 
pation will come. Dr. Robert E. Speer mentions that 
there have been several attempts in Persia to publish 
newspapers for Moslem women. Women are already 
vocal in more countries than one. A Conference of 
Indian Moslem ladies in 1918 protested strongly against 
polygamy, and this sign of ethical advance is only 
symptomatic of the new point of view in matters 
social that must take place with the opening of the 
mind of Moslem women through modern education 
and literature. 


1 


The penetration from without of the closed mind of 
{slam is going on steadily, but the great break in Islam 
is from within. The caliphate has ceased to be the 
rallying center. 

One of the central elements in the Islamic system 
has always been the unity of the temporal and spiritual 
power through the caliphate. The Caliph, as the suc- 
cessor of Mohammed, is the head of the Islamic theoc- 
racy. He is not like the Prophet, merely a spiritual 
officer; his function is also secular. The Caliph is 
chief magistrate, hence the importance in the mind 

1 Christian Literature in Moslem Lands, p. 258. 


142 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


of the Moslem of uniting that office with temporal 
power. 

The first Caliph (Abu Bakr) was appointed by the 
community gathered round the grave of Mohammed. 
During the first eight centuries the caliphate was held 
successively by various dynasties, there being several 
forcible breaks in the succession. In 1582 the Ottoman 
Turks, then at the height of their power, invaded 
Egypt, at that time the seat of the caliphate, and cap- 
tured the Caliph who was induced to transfer the 
caliphate, with its insignia, to the Turkish Sultan. 
Political power and possession of the holy places made 
his position unassailable; indeed, Turkey alone, of all 
Moslem states, was capable of furnishing the political 
power with which the caliphate should be clothed. 

The mystic symbol of the caliphate again and again 
rallied as by magic the whole Moslem world in support 
of the Turkish states, even when those states have been 
most rotten and cruel, and time after time the humani- 
tarianism of the West'retired baffled and beaten. The 
Treaty of Lausanne was not a triumph for Turkey: 
the Sultan was at one and the same time Sultan and 
Caliph, and the victory at Lausanne was the fruit of 
the mystic power enshrined in the caliphate. It was 
only secured by steady pressure on the West from every 
Moslem country—especially India—called forth by an 
appeal to the interest of the caliphate. The Turk has 
again and again exploited this sentiment by consti- 
tuting himself through the caliphate the spearhead of 
Islam against the aggression of the unbeliever. 

Now the apparently impossible has happened: not 
only has a Caliph been rudely overthrown, but the 


THE BREAK-UP OF PAN-ISLAM $143 


caliphate itself has been declared by the Turkish gov- 
ernment to be abolished! 

Till quite recently the Sultans of Turkey continued 
to be Caliph and Sultan, but after the formation of 
the new Turkish Republic the link between Sultan and 
Caliph was abruptly broken towards the close of 1922. 
The Caliph, the spiritual head of all Islam, was made a 
puppet of the Republic, and the Moslem world ac- 
cepted the changed status with a wry face. The 
caliphate still existed, but as one writer said, “ The 
Caliph was disestablished, although not disendowed.” * 
To the Moslem a Caliph without temporal power was 
inconceivable, and it was hardly likely that the rever- 
ence and loyalty which, for four hundred years, had 
been accorded in every part of the Moslem world to 
the Sultan-Caliph would continue to be paid to a Caliph 
who was no longer the head of a state. 

The Moslem had not had time to adjust his mind to 
the new situation when, in the beginning of March, 
1924, there was flashed from end to end of the world 
of Islam the news of the deposition of the Caliph, and 
the abolition of the caliphate by the Angora Assembly ” 
of the young Turkish Republic. 


1 The Times, Leading Article, 2nd November, 1923. 

_ 2 Angora, a town of some 35,000 inhabitants, was made and still 
is the seat of government of the new Grand National Assembly of 
Turkey set up early in 1920. Two years later this self-appointed 
body overthrew the government at Constantinople of the Sultan- 
Caliph, who fled and took refuge on a British man-of-war. The 
Sultan’s cousin was elected by the Grand National Assembly to 
the caliphate, but in 1924 the Assembly, as stated above, deposed 
the new Caliph and abolished the office of caliphate. 


44 \THEYCOST OF A NEW WORE 


il 


Orthodox Moslems were shocked and paralyzed by 
the action of Turkey. The first reaction was the 
precipitate proclamation in Transjordania of King 
Hussein as Caliph. Damascus, which the writer was 
visiting at the time, speedily followed suit. A gather- 
ing ny Moslem leaders was summoned by the "Mufti 
(the head of the Moslem community), and on the 7th 
of March, 1924, in the presence of some thirty thou- 
sand people gathered in the Grand Mosque and its 
Great Court, King Hussein was proclaimed Caliph. 
That was a memorable Friday in Damascus. The 
proclamation was followed by scenes of extraordinary 
enthusiasm. The bazaars were packed with crowds 
from the city and surrounding provinces containing a 
liberal sprinkling of North Rapes Turks, Kurds, 
Persians, Circassians, and even Afghans, as strange 
and fascinating a concourse as that romantic city ever 
witnessed. On the day after, Damascus presented a 
striking contrast. The same bazaars were closed, and 
the streets almost deserted. Rumor had it that the 
French Government had remonstrated with the Moslem 
authorities for their action on the previous day, and 
that the Mufit had vigorously objected to the inter- 
ference of the civil government in matters of faith, 
religious liberty having been guaranteed by the Man- 
date for Syria in favor of the French Government. 
The bazaars were closed to emphasize this protest. 
Here was Islam appealing for religious liberty to a 
compact between Western powers, a thing that had 
not happened in all its history! Followers of Moham- 


THE BREAK-UP OF PAN-ISLAM 145 


med had always despised the liberty they could not win 
by the sword. The incident illustrates an important 
stage in the break-up of Pan-Islam. 

The swift action by Damascus concerning the 
caliphate was due to two things. That city specially 
resented Angora’s warning against pilgrimages to 
Mecca. Damascus is one of the holy places of Islam 
and the usual starting-point for these great pilgrimages. 
from those countries which converge on Syria; and, 
as might be expected, the Damascenes at once showed 
opposition to the Turkish proposal—* by this craft we 
have our wealth.”’ But there was another and a deeper 
reason for the proclamation. It meant that the Mos- 
lem world was in no mood to take the decision of 
Angora lying down. ‘This was amply confirmed by 
telegrams from India and Egypt. Moslems openly 
expressed their dismay at the action of the Turks. 
They were outraged by the disregard shown for the 
deeply-rooted faith of Islam in the unity of the tem- 
poral and spiritual power, while the indignity to the 
office of the Caliph and the exhibition of dissension 
before unbelievers wounded their pride. 

It was clear that a mere order from Angora to the 
Caliph to descend from his throne would not put an 
end to the caliphate. A forcible change of Caliph 
might have taken place without ruffling the calm of 
Islam. Almost from the first Caliphs have been cast 
down and set up, but the startling fact in the new 
situation was the attempt not merely to remove the 
Caliph (whom strangely enough no one has thought of 
restoring) but the decision to abolish the caliphate it- 
self. Did Mustapha Kemal, the head of the Turkish 


146 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


Republic, mean gratuitously to outrage the whole Mos- 
lem world? 

Pan-Islam had again and again been the shield of 
Turkey. Why was such never-failing armor thrown 
aside? The conclusion can only be that in the eyes of 
Angora the danger to Turkish nationalism represented 
by the presence of a puppet Caliph outweighed the 
value of this unseen defense. The situation was full 
of temptation to any strong political adventurer con- 
nected with the House of Othman to seize the reins 
of government and unite again in his person the Sul- 
tan-Caliphate, sure of the strong support which the 
prestige of such a position would call forth. To secure 
Turkish nationality in the shape of the Republic, or 
rather, perhaps, to secure its ambitious president from 
such a risk, the desperate step was taken of disentan- 
eling the caliphate for ever from Turkish national life, 
not only by deposing the Caliph but by declaring the 
office of caliphate at an end. The time had come when 
Pan-Islam had to bow to the self-interest of nation- 
ality. 

Probably the Turks shrewdly suspected that before 
many days one or other of the reigning Moslem princes 
elsewhere would seize the office even if they were un- 
able to identify it again in the mind of the devout and 
orthodox Mohammedan with adequate political power. 
As events turned out, Angora read the Moslem mind 
aright. 

Startling confirmation of the rift in Islam was to 
come within six months. The Caliph-King, Hussein, 
has himself in turn been swept aside, and another is 
on his throne. This incident was accompanied by the 


THE BREAK-UP OF PAN-ISLAM 147 


capture and plundering of Mecca, a violation of the 
Holy City which has greatly disturbed Moslems, and 
which has led to the suggestion that Britain should 
undertake protection of the pilgrimage, an ironic com- 
ment on the Pan-Islamic system. 

The future of the caliphate has become the subject 
of acute strife. When Turkey so unceremoniously re- 
moved the Caliph and declared the office to be abol- 
ished, arrangements were made by the head of Al 
Azhar, Cairo, for a conference of Sunni Moslem lead- 
ers to reestablish the caliphate and to elect a Caliph 
who would command the following of all Islam. The 
name of King Fouad, who is an orthodox Moslem, 
appears to be that most favored. He would bring to 
the office a certain prestige as King of Egypt, but the 
consent of Moslem leaders in other lands, which do 
not love Egypt, would be necessary, and action has 
been delayed owing to the fear of further divisions. 


IV 


Islam has till now made national and racial frontiers 
links instead of barriers, giving it a great and un- 
paralleled unity. The symbol of unity was the caliphate. 
The age-long unity of Islam through that symbol is 
now broken. ‘The factors making against unity are 
too strong; rifts grow wider within. In olden days the 
power to depose by the sword carried the power to 
settle the succession by the sword. That arbiter is no 
longer available; nationalism has shivered the blade. 
“They that take the sword shall perish with the sword.” 
Nationalism is only in its early days in Moslem lands. 


a, 
148 THE COST! OR A’ NEW WORLD 


Turkey, which seemed only a few years ago to be the 
last important Islamic state, is now a modern republic, 
and will soon have many contemporaries all over the 
Near East, and possibly some day in India. Islam is 
in transition, and all in the western world who care 
for the expansion of Christianity cannot but watch 
with interest a situation which affects the faith and 
life and thought of over two hundred millions of the 
human race. 

Since the beginning of the present century two in- 
fluences—social and political—have been at work in 
Islamic lands with far-reaching effects. The old view 
was that the world of Islam was unchanging and un- 
changeable; that view is no longer true. It would be 
a mistake, on the other hand, to assume that Moham- 
medanism is breaking up. A religion which for twelve 
hundred years has held absolute dominion over indi- 
viduals, communities, and national life, and which has 
created unexampled unity, does not decay in a night. 
But the old front of Islam, which in our time seemed 
absolutely unbroken, has had shattering shocks. 

Islam’s problem today is how to maintain its old 
position unimpaired in face of the full blast of the life 
of the modern world, and it is asking itself whether 
the old system can meet the needs of the new situation. 
Some Moslem leaders are seeking stability for Islam 
in a Mohammedan renaissance. ‘The stricter observ- 
ance of special days in the calendar; e.g., the Prophet’s 
birthday, is being emphasized by the orthodox. In 
the Near East there is increasing pressure to close 
shops on Fridays and to pay stricter attention to the 
observance of the hours of prayer. But the old ortho- 


THE BREAK-UP OF PAN-ISLAM — 149 


dox fanaticism can with difficulty be stirred in some 
centers even by the spectacle of converts from Islam 
to Christianity openly attending Christian worship. 
Islam is by no means longing for a great spiritual 
adventure, and these efforts at more orthodox observ- 
ance will not meet the case. The Islamic system is in 
inevitable collision with new ideas. Religion is always 
an aid or an obstacle to national aspirations, and it is 
the breakdown of Pan-Islam in face of the growth of 
nationality that makes the present situation so signifi- 
cant. 

Islam claims spiritual sufficiency, but Moslems are 
conscious that Islam, as it is, does not fit the new 
standards of life and thought in the world. They are 
searching after a fresh unity, but have not yet dis- 
covered it. Upheaval means the opening of closed 
minds, and always creates a pathway for Christianity. 
The social and political changes, culminating in the 
breakdown of Pan-Islam, opened for Christian occupa- 
tion great regions of the human spirit which have been 
closed for centuries. 

To the Church of Christ all these new stirrings are 
but the utterances of human need, and it is over against 
the need of men that the Church has been entrusted 
with the good news of the gospel. In Moslem lands 
the ancient barque of Islam is entering on stormy un- 
charted seas. It is carrying precious if dangerous 
cargo—awakened peoples, unbridled movements, tem- 
pest-tossed nations. Argonauts of a bigger faith, with 
surer chart and compass, are needed to salve such 
treasure, 


150°) THE COST OF ANEW) WORLD 


Books FoR REFERENCE AND FURTHER READING 


Caliphate, The. Tuomas Arnotp, Oxford University Press, 
New York. 1924. $3.50. 

Christian Literature in Moslem Lands. George H. Doran Co., 
New York. 1923. $3.50. A study of the activities of the 
Moslem and Christian press in all Mohammedan countries. 

Conferences of Christian Workers among Moslems, 1924: Findings 
of the Jerusalem Conference. John R. Mott, Editor. Inter- 
national Missionary Council, New York. 1924. $1.50. 

Jesus Christ and the World’s Religions. W. Paton. Edinburgh 
House Press, London. Is. 

Koran, The. Translation by J. M. Ropwett. E. P. Dutton and 
Co., New York. 80 cents and $1.00. 

Moslem World, The. A quarterly magazine edited by S. M. 
Zwemer. Missionary Review Publishing Co., 156 Fifth Ave- 
nue, New York. $2.00 per year; 50 cents per copy. 

Moslem World in Revolution, The. W. W. Casu. Edinburgh 
House Press, London. 1925. 2s. 

Moslem World of Today, The. JoHN R. Mort, Editor. George 
H. Doran Co., New York. 1925. $2.50. A series of papers 
by authoritative writers. 

New World of Islam, The. LotHrop Stopparp. Charles Scrib- 
ner’s Sons, New York. 1921. $3.00. 

Rebuke of Islam, The. W.H. T. Gatrpner. Church Missionary 
Society, London. 1920. 50 cents. 

Riddle of Nearer Asia, The. Bastt Matuews. George H. 
Doran Co., New York. 10918. $1.25. 

Story of Islam, The. T. R. W. Lunt. Edinburgh House Press, 
London. Is. . 


CHAPTER VIE 
A EA Sed 5 Ok Nini ol ass Ra 


One of the dangers of modern thought lies in the fact 
that analysis is often mistaken for construction. In 
the preceding chapters we have very briefly surveyed 
one or two of the main movements of the world in 
which our fathers lived, and have tried to indicate 
some of the great movements in the world of today. 
But to trace the history of events is not necessarily to 
understand the deep meaning of things; and we must 
carry our inquiry a little further and look into the 
mainsprings of human conduct. <A constructive road 
can only be found if we understand what are the un- 
derlying forces warring against each other in all these 
world movements. 


I 


We were startled to find that the century which was 
ushered in with Carey and Napoleon had hardly closed 
when the ideals they typified were reflected in a world 
missionary conference and a world war. “ Edinburgh, 
1910” celebrated a century of unrivaled progress in 
the expansion of Christianity, and almost simultane- 
ously a war on an unparalleled scale burst on the world. 
Here were two historic events, each the inevitable 
climax of a certain course of history. Human life had 
run in two separate streams. There was a growing 
moral and spiritual influence in one region of human 


life, and in another a swelling tide of material forces. 
151 


152) THE COST OPAL NE WW ORI 


It was not the collision of these two ideals, however, 
that brought about the world war. The war was sim- 
ply the clash of rivalries in international politics, eco- 
nomic development, spheres of influence, and imperial 
ambitions. The ultimate conflict lies deeper in the 
realm of the spirit. 

We saw that the expansion of Christianity follow- 
ing on the Evangelical Revival was part of the dra- 
matic evolution of the last hundred and fifty years, and 
that in the latter half of the eighteenth century several 
other great streams of human activity had broken out 
in Christendom, the movements of which by no means 
synchronized with the expansion of Christianity. 
While the Evangelical Revival, the expansion of Eu- 
rope, the rise of modern democracy, and the industrial 
revolution have together shaped the modern world, the 
influence of the Christian movement generally, for 
various reasons, was limited. 

The expansion of Christianity was strangely isolated 
in the thought and life of the Church, and the Church 
itself was isolated in the great stream of the world’s 
life. It was never altogether a backwater in those 
hundred and fifty years, but its effect on the course 
of that middle stream of world life was lamentably 
feeble. It is as if there had been an unequal pace 
between two activities. Man in a century and a half 
has traveled an illimitable distance in mastery of the 
forces of nature and in material progress, as compared 
with the advance made in the things of the spirit. 
Europe expanded under the influence of a spirit of 
domination and exploitation. The humanitarian move- 
ment coming late on the scene had to fight a long and 


THE: REAL CONEBLICT 153 


dour battle against the worst evils of that expansion, 
and the victory is not yet. Democracy arose and was 
generally met with cold suspicion as a thing of evil, 
and with distrust as an enemy of religion. The Kings- 
leys and Chalmerses of those bygone days appear like 
lights that only emphasize the general murkiness of 
the long night. Modern industry grew silently into 
the monster octopus-like thing it has become, spreading 
its tentacles over man and nature alike, scorning re- 
ligion as the harmless chatter of pious priests and de- 
vout women. In a word, all these conquests of men 
in the physical world, the marvels of invention and the 
vast development of trade and industry, have been 
irresistible creators of materialistic conceptions of the 
world and the people that dwell therein. 

In every sphere of life causes produce inevitable 
consequences. With such an onrush of the material 
we need not be surprised if human history steadily 
moved in one direction with a logic of its own, and 
that the end of a most marvelous century was the 
World War. The War was simply a dramatic and 
startling exhibition of what was inherent in the de- 
velopment of the history of Europe in the previous 
hundred years. What God poured into life for its 
enrichment and service became in the hands of a sin- 
corrupted world an instrument of the devil. Not only 
the wealth of men, but God-given ingenuity and the 
resources of invention were dedicated to the same sin- 
ister power. What were obviously the free gifts of 
God, meant to set men and women at leisure to de- 
velop their higher natures, to increase genuine human 
culture, and to make life a thing of service, were in 


T6405 LHE COST: OFA NEW i WORDT 


reality dedicated to the destruction of the human race 
on a hitherto unprecedented scale. Here essentially 
was a conflict between two ideals. 

When St. Paul wishes to represent this conflict he 
speaks of it as a contest between the flesh and the 
spirit ; in modern times we should describe it as a war- 
fare between matter and spirit. 

There is, however, no essential conflict between the 
two. All material things are gifts from God to man- 
kind. But the moment the material is allowed to 
dominate life, it is inevitably in conflict with the spirit- 
ual. The issue is between the subordination of the ma- 
terial to the spiritual and the capitulation of the spirit- 
ual to a selfish materialism. 


II 


In all the surging life of the world today—national- 
ism and internationalism, the uprising of youth, the 
conflict of race, the industrialization of the Orient, the 
opening up of Africa, the spread of education in every 
land—these two forces, matter and spirit, are too often 
in open conflict; the one, overwhelming, strident, as- 
sertive, making for disintegration; the other, almost 
always feeble but ever making for unity and fellow- 
ship. 

These two forces are clearly seen in modern national 
and international movements. The magic word “ self- 
determination’ has caught the imagination of many 
races in the world, and for the most part it has been 
interpreted as “ self-assertion,” so that national aspira- 
tions are clashing not only with the older empires, but, 


THE REAL CONFLICT 155 


more ominously, with each other. The sense of na- 
tionality is one of the instincts implanted by God in 
the human heart. Nationalism is sometimes the finest 
thing in the world—the common consciousness of a 
great heritage in history, tradition, language, religion, 
literature, and art, coupled with a passion to conserve 
and enrich these things and to share them with all 
mankind so that the world may be a better and a 
happier place. At other times it is a pitiful little self- 
ish thing, a center of fear and unrest, feverishly seek- 
ing its own ends at the expense of others and erecting 
futile barriers against the outside world. It too easily 
succumbs to the doctrine that it is to its advantage 
that neighbors should be thwarted and forestalled in 
everything. Nationalism and its slogan “ patriotism ”’ 
are often meaningless words, just a sentiment appealed 
to in support of action that cannot stand on its merits. 
Patriotism is often a cloak to conceal self-interest or 
absence of reason and facts. Very tardily has the Brit- 
ish public inscribed on Nurse Cavell’s monument the 
words, “Patriotism is not enough.” Nurse Cavell was 
right: patriotism is not enough. Standing on the 
edge of two worlds she saw clearly that only in the full 
application of Christian brotherhood between man and 
nations was there any hope for the world. 

It is passing strange that nationalism and interna- 
tionalism should be regarded as incompatible. Just as 
the strength of family ties is not the enemy but the 
very basis of a sound social order, so true nationalism 
is not the foe but the handmaid of internationalism. 
On the well-being of the family depends the welfare 
of the state, and the freedom of the state is necessary 


156 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


to a healthy internationalism. The old doctrine of the 
sovereignty of the state—carrying absolute rights but 
no obligation—cannot live in the modern world. Surely 
sovereignty does not negative the willing acceptance of 
obligation, nor does it disappear if rights are volun- 
tarily waived for the common good. Healthy sover- 
eignty means the wise and just exercise of national 
freewill. 

True nationalism—and its ally internationalism— 
are struggling for a hearing in the minds and con- 
sciences of men. Self-interest is ever in conflict with 
self-interest, and men are ever on the edge of great 
disputes because the supposed interests of one people 
come into collision with those of another or are hin- 
dered by the stolidity of a primitive race. And in the 
result we have complications, disagreements, wars and 
rumors of wars. Political agreements, unless based on 
goodwill, will not carry the nations very far. They too 
often have their sanction in self-interest, in necessity, 
or in prudence; and when these fail to operate, agree- 
ment ceases. Permanent goodwill must be rooted in 
the mind and soul of man, and only on true principles 
implanted there can there be any stable order in human 
society. Goodwill, however, in itself is not enough. 
Organization for its expression is imperative. While 
it is true that political agreements without goodwill 
inevitably fail, goodwill without international organi- 
zation to make it effective will avail little. Should not 
Christian folk today find in the realm of international 
politics one of the greatest possible opportunities for 
making goodwill effective? 

There are woefully few signs of international good- 


THE REAL CONFLICT 157 


will; there are, rather, signs that give cause for grave 
disquiet. It may indeed be that after a momentary 
pause the insane race of armaments will be entered 
into with keener zest. Even a man of such penetrating 
intellect as Lord Birkenhead is convinced that, human 
nature being what it is, there is no alternative but to 
sharpen our swords and furbish our armor. He was 
only speaking aloud the thoughts that many others 
are afraid to utter. 

We need have no illusions as to what the final result 
of such a policy must be. Those who reflect on the 
devilish ingenuity of the destructive powers that lie 
in modern engines of warfare can tell pretty shrewdly 
that another war will certainly bring us near to the 
extinction of our civilization. If we doubt this, let 
us go to the admirals and generals and they will tell 
us in unmistakable terms that even since the signing 
of the Armistice there have been great developments 
in scientific methods of destruction. High explosives 
capable of wiping out great masses of noncombatants, 
shells fired from long-range monster guns, poisonous 
gases, bombs filled with death-dealing germs, and long- 
distance aeroplanes to carry them, are all part of the 
ordinary calculations of a modern General Staff. Give, 
say, another twenty years of such development with 
equal if not greater rapidity, and the world is faced with 
a prospect that makes every serious man shudder. The 
safest place in the next war will be in the front line! 
The destruction of human life involved in such a pic- 
ture is a prospect challenging enough in its possibilities. 
Yet the real challenge lies deeper still. It means the 
defeat of the spiritual—the failure of life to control 


158 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


its material side—the overpowering of the second Adam 
by the first. 


The same conflict is equally evident in industry. The 
nineteenth century saw a sudden and startling accre- 
tion to the material resources of life. For the time 
being at all events, as we have seen, the material side 
of life was in the ascendancy. , Wealth and the power 
to get wealth were suddenly let loose upon the human 
race. The world produced and consumed, consumed 
and produced, and waxed fat and gross. Wealth was 
power; it was the symbol of the nineteenth century 
life. The energies of life were consumed in the fevered 
haste of production. The spiritual was thrust out and 
denied its place. The sin of the century lay in the 
adoption of the maxim, “Man shall live by bread 
alone.” Indeed, it may be contended with some show 
of reason that we have here the essential nature of sin. 
It is the choice of the service of Mammon instead of 
the service of God; it allows the material side of life 
to master the spiritual; however disguised, it is essen- 
tially a denial of the supremacy of the spiritual. It is 
too late in the day to question the social, moral, and 
spiritual consequences of the industrial system. In- 
dustrialism in England during the past hundred and 
fifty years has profoundly affected the quality of the 
national life and character; it touches human life too 
closely to be non-moral. The two forces, matter and 
spirit, are in conflict in industry all the time. 

The sweep of the conflict is even wider than the 
nation. There is civil industrial war within the nations, 


THE REAL CONFLICT 159 


and perpetual industrial war between the nations; and 
in all this strife there is as sure an abandonment of 
the issues to material forces as in ordinary war they 
are left to the hazard of the sword. The industrialism 
now developing in the East is being modeled on that of 
the West. To the Orient we have carried much that 
is good and a good deal more that is evil—modern 
materialism, modern industrialism, modern armaments 
—and have implanted there the assumption of the Oc- 
cidental industrial system, that economic gain is the 
one real consideration in the development of human 
society. The East has not been slow to learn. 

Even now the real character of these dominant in- 
fluences in life is hardly recognized by the Church. 
An illustration may help to make the argument clear. 
Early in 1925 some startling figures were published 
showing the colossal growth of wealth in the United 
States of America, which it was estimated in that year 
was not less than $320,000,000,000, representing a ten- 
fold increase within fifty years. Some people expressed 
grave concern at the peril to spiritual life if a fair pro- 
portion of that increased wealth did not find its way 
into “ Christian service.” Surely the facts rather sug- 
gest another peril—the overwhelming amount of sheer 
materialism expressed in this rapid amassing of dol- 
lars. The production of wealth at such a pace involves 
the capture of the human spirit by the forces which 
create it. A vast amount of concentrated energy is 
absorbed in the conception, planning, carrying out, and 
guiding of the material forces that made this huge in- 
crease in income possible. It cannot for a moment be 


160 THE COST OF A NEW, WORLD 


pretended that there is at present any sign of an ade- 
quate spiritual counterstroke to all that material ab- 
sorption of the spirit of man. 

Faced with such an onrush of materialism, men 
eagerly proclaim various refuges. Some would return 
to nature and some to asceticism, and some would fall 
back on various apocalyptic conceptions. These are 
counsels of despair and, apart from their hopelessness, 
would mean the abandonment of faith in the Kingdom 
of God and a surrender of the human spirit to another 
set of influences no less dangerous than the material 
forces we have been discussing. 


In the clamor of the colored races the same conflict 
emerges. On the one hand there is the assertion of 
the right of self-interest to dominate, and on the other 
the revolt against domination, the demand of colored 
races to control their own lives. To them the one peril 
is the white peril. They fear and distrust and mean to 
oppose the effort by the white race—one fourth only 
of the human family—to shape human society and 
order history. We may well be appalled at the prospect 
of permanent human relations based on these conflict- 
ing attitudes. Is not the better way to recognize that 
differences are not necessarily antagonisms, but they 
may be complementary? Each race and nation has 
its special gifts, and only as all make their distinctive 
contribution to the common good can human progress 
be achieved. The true solution lies in willing coopera- 
tion of men, races and nations, but such cooperation 
can only be secured if spiritual ideals control material 
interests. 


THE REAL CONFLICT 161 


It was the accepted standards at home that gave 
Europe wrong standards for Africa. The growth of 
industry in Africa is slow, but the baneful spirit of 
trade, industry, and commerce in Europe is perverting 
the thought of white men both at home and in the 
colonies about the rightful place of the African in his 
own land. It has not yet been grasped that the great- 
est natural resource of Africa is the African, and that 
the standard of value transmitted by the old world is 
all wrong. And so we find the same warring principles 
—one emphasizing the value of personality, the other 
the rapid production of material wealth. 


Education is everywhere tearing aside the veil of 
ignorance. The new progress in physical science ef- 
fected a real change in the human mind, making it open 
and receptive, and everywhere it is receiving new im- 
pressions of one kind or another. The scientific dis- 
coveries of the European can no longer be kept secret 
from the East and from Africa. Their sons and 
daughters are being educated in the colleges and uni- 
versities of the West and are returning in ever-increas- 
ing numbers to their own lands. The growth of edu- 
cation should mean better motives, higher aims, and 
higher ideals; but new knowledge may mean revolt 
ending in a futile impatient leap to a goal. It may 
mean added power for evil. In the modern human 
mind there is enough explosive material lying about 
to destroy what we call civilization. The sack of Rome 
by the Vandals and Goths may be repeated with all the 
added power of destruction now within the reach of 
men. 


162° (¢THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


The youth of the world are reaching out wistfully 
for a new life; they attack Christianity and at the 
same time assert that the true struggle everywhere is 
a spiritual one. Sometimes the new spirit destroys 
rather than fulfils, but there is no need today to press 
on the opening mind of the youth of the world the 
argument that the present conflict 1s between material 
and spiritual conceptions of life. 


One movement cannot be overlooked. The war gave 
rise to what must now be regarded as an international 
movement—the new political school known as Bolshe- 
vism. Founding itself upon the doctrines of Karl 
Marx, it has taken, for the time being at least, firm 
root in the life of Russia, where it established itself 
with comparative ease owing to the long and cruel 
oppression of the peasantry of that sad country. More- 
over, the morbid and fatalistic temperament of the 
Slav, coupled with a backward religious development, 
lent itself readily to the Marxian doctrine of the “ dic- 
tatorship of the Proletariat,’ developed later into the 
“ dictatorship of the class-conscious minority.” 

The development of capitalism, the increasing con- 
trast between wealth and poverty, and the denial to 
the masses of toilers of the right to share in the in- 
crease of the world’s wealth, have provided well-pre- 
pared seed-beds for Bolshevism in many of the coun- 
tries of the world. Bolshevism may readily enough 
project something comparable to a world war—a war 
of classes on hitherto unprecedented lines. Bolshevism 
is more than an economic doctrine. It is a philosophy 
of life—almost a creed. The real objection to Bolshe- 


THE REAL CONFLICT 163 


vism does not lie in its brutal cruelties—these are inci- 
dental to almost every revolution: the primary objec- 
tion is that it sanctions force for the attainment of 
political ends, and is based on a purely materialistic 
view of history. 

Acute observers have pointed out, however, that the 
new era in Russia does not altogether derive its support 
from the extreme Marxian doctrines above referred 
to. Perhaps operating as powerfully in the Slav mind 
is the authority of the guild, which is so deeply im- 
bedded in Eastern social systems, and through which 
democracy in the Orient may ultimately best express 
itself, rather than through political institutions founded 
on Western models. It may indeed be that it is this 
appeal to the guild system that gives stability to the 
Moscow government as much as drastic application of 
the doctrine of dictatorship of the class-conscious 
minority. 

The religious-like passion of Bolshevism is not with- 
out its appeal outside Russia. There is an upward 
striving for life readily discernible in the lives of great 
masses of the people in all western lands. In Britain 
and in most of the countries of central and western 
Europe it is largely guided by conscious reason based 
on a considered philosophy of evolutionary socialism 
with strong and enthusiastic leadership. The fate of a 
world may depend on whether evolutionary socialism 
can successfully withstand Bolshevism, which is mak- 
ing a determined endeavor to capture it. We cannot 
look forward to the future with much hope should 
such a possibility become a reality. A better world 
cannot be brought about “ by transforming the organi- 


164. THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


zation of society without transforming its values.” * 
We should merely have in Bolshevism an inverted capi- 
talism equally if not more sinister, for here again we 
have the old conflict, attempted forcible domination of 
the spirit, and a situation which ought to set Christian 
men and women thinking more deeply. 


Ii! 


Life is made up of relationships with other people. 
The central fact of human society is its solidarity. 
That solidarity creates certain rights and duties within 
the family, within the nation, internationally and in- 
terracially. These rights and duties rest solely on the 
fact of manhood. The claim to be regarded as men is 
just one way of asserting the spiritual conception of 
manhood. Such a claim, however, cannot be made 
good on the old level of human life and thought. 
Human relationships framed on a mere material basis 
have always broken down. Selfish ideals will strain 
and break, and self-interest will breed distrust between 
men. Nor will common passion hold men together. 
Even relationships developed in the red-hot passion of 
war will not stand the strain of the reaction. These 
unities are all soulless mechanism; men can only be 
held permanently together when their unity is based 
on a spiritual conception of life. Abiding cooperation 
between men and nations depends ultimately on the 
possibility of spiritual affinity. 

Human history is passing to a new plane. In early 
times tribe was set over against tribe; in the Middle 

1Zimmern, Europe in Convalescence, p. 44. 


THE REAL CONFLICT 165 


Ages, city against city, or feudal state against feudal 
state; and in later times nation against nation, or em- 
pire against empire. History is now rather moving to 
a plane where the relations of mankind conflict not in 
geographical areas but in regions of human activities 
—transport and communications, trade, industry and 
commerce, capital and labor, education and public 
health. The West has inoculated Africa and the East 
with white culture and modern industry, and Asia and 
Africa have handed back to us new gifts. In our own 
time they have produced rare human spirits like Kweg- 
Vin Aoerey.) Rabindranath’ Lagore, iT.) 2.) Koo; T. 
Kagawa, for whose lives and work the whole world is 
the richer; while the physical gifts of the Orient and 
A frica—the tea of Ceylon, the silks of China, the rub- 
ber of the tropics—have formed some of our most 
cherished social habits. Less welcome but equally well 
known features of our modern life, “ flu”’ and “ sleep- 
ing sickness,’ are gifts to us from these lands. In 
the world today all men live as neighbors; they are all 
interdependent, and life in every land acts and reacts 
on mankind everywhere. 

The implications of human activities on this wide 
field of action and reaction are not always understood. 
For example, no one wants war, but many set their 
whole heart on things which can only be obtained by 
war. Again, we are all now committed to the princi- 
ple that empire means trusteeship for backward peo- 
ples, but few of us realize that we must likewise be 
committed to certain definite courses of action 1f the 
principle is to be realized. Or again, when we carry 
abroad our practise of the appreciation of men accord- 


166° THE COST OR VAINEW? WORLD 


ing to birth or wealth, we ought not to be surprised if 
it reproduces, in countries where such a thing was for- 
merly unknown, the arrogance that arises from con- 
scious possession and advantage, and the subtle inso- 
lence that makes one people regard another as in some 
way inferior. Power and influence are demonstrated 
in Christian lands by force, and we need not wonder 
if Africa and the East become our apt pupils. Jf non- 
Christian peoples find, in their bewildering helplessness 
against the god of materialism, no helping hand held 
out by the Christian nations, it is because these nations 
themselves lay no store on the grip of the Hand that 
guides the universe. 


IV 


In the beginning of the twentieth century hell on 
earth came perceptibly nearer because only part of the 
new energies of man had been claimed for God, and 
history may easily repeat itself. Men thought they 
could isolate religion in the life of the world. All 
other movements refused to be isolated because they 
touched life everywhere; but for a generation or two 
it appeared as if Christianity had nothing to say to 
these movements, with their corporate influence, cor- 
porate problems, sin, tyranny, duty, responsibility, and 
ideals. Is it not just here that the Church has missed? 
It has not definitely sought to bring all life into cap- 
tivity to Jesus Christ. It has lived in the world along- 
side clashing tides of life, social, political, and indus- 
trial, without claiming them for Him. Therefore today 
the Church finds itself, in its outreach to the non- 


THE REAL CONFLICT 167 


Christian world, unavoidably faced with immense new 
mental and material activities in Africa and the Orient, 
but without any sure experience gathered in the West 
to guide its actions. Nay more, itis rather handicapped 
in all its efforts by the fact of its neglect to break 
through its limitation in Christian lands. 

It may be asked, however, whether religion has any 
real bearing on all these questions. After all, may not 
segregation be the only safe race relationship—“ one 
hundred per cent Americanism” be the best of all 
national ideals—armed neutrality the wisest interna- 
tional policy—unfettered materialism the best economic 
road for mankind—and a benevolent exploitation a 
necessary step in the upward path of backward lands? 
The answer is that the human soul is in revolution 
everywhere against such a view. The old order has 
hopelessly broken down, and 


All the king’s horses and all the king’s men 
Cannot put Humpty Dumpty together again. 


Must the old world then just go stumbling on 
through the ruins, must material progress continue to 
create evil conditions within each nation, and produce 
international conflicts and bitter race rivalries? The 
answer depends on whether national or individual self- 
interest is put first and human personality second. The 
supreme thing in the Christian religion is its regard for 
human personality. What the world wants is an Ein- 
stein to introduce a new dimension into the whole mat- 
ter, to show that economically, politically, and racially 
the results are all wrong unless full weight is given to 
spiritual and moral values. If religion has nothing to 


163) DHE COST OBR: ANNE Win On 


do with nationalism, internationalism, racialism, indus- 
try, and commerce, then it must confess itself a failure, 
unable to help human life at the hour of greatest need 
in the modern world. But religion does claim to know 
the better road and to have the secret truth that will 
stand the growing strain of all problems circling round 
the development of human society. By that test Chris- 
tianity must stand or fall, for, unless it can be shown 
that every issue of life can be solved in the realm of 
the spirit, Christianity cannot pretend to hold the se- 
cret of the hope of the world. 

Is this insistence on spiritual domination defensible ? 
Both conceptions of life—the spiritual and the material 
—are today stronger than ever before, are held more 
fervently, have more devotees and are more clearly 
discerned. This may sound paradoxical but it is sim- 
ple truth. Is there, then, room for both in one world 
if it is to remain a safe world for humanity, or is 
mankind hurrying along to the real Armageddon? 
The answer is that life cannot be spoken of as con- 
sisting of two elements, material and spiritual, that 
can be sharply marked off from each other. They in- 
terpenetrate; they do more—they run into one indi- 
visible unity so that some kind of relationship must be 
established between them within the unity of life. 
Where the material is uncontrolled, it becomes rebel 
and demands not merely a place but mastery. There 
is only freedom from strife in life when in each being 
the spirit reigns supreme and controls the material. 
Life’s contacts—social, economic, and political—do not 
end on a material plane, nor can they rest on it. They 
touch the spirit of man, and the question is whether 


THE REAL CONFLICT 169 


in Christianity we can offer to the world what it needs 
most today—‘a religion which wins in its solitary 
hours of devotion power to realize itself in the market 
and the senate and the embassy and the home and for- 
eign mission field.” ? 


Books FoR REFERENCE AND FURTHER READING 


Civilization and Ethics. ALBERT SCHWEITZER. Part II of Phi- 
losophy of Civilization. The Macmillan Co., New York. 
1923. $4.00. 

Ethical Teaching of Jesus, The. Ernest F. Scott. The Mac- 
millan Co., New York. 1925. $1.00. 

Forces of the Spirit. FRANK LENWoop, Student Christian Move- 
ment, England. 2s. 6d. 

World and the Gospel, The. J. H. OtpHAm. Edinburgh House 
Press, London. 2s. 6d. 


1D. S. Cairns, Christianity in the Modern World. 


GHART ERE VILL 
THE LEADERVIN THE CONELIGN 


In the preceding chapters we saw that the great and 
growing conflicts in modern life are just phases of the | 
age-long struggle in which the material seeks to domi- 
nate the spiritual. But the pace of life today and the 
new unity of the world have made the issue closer and 
more urgent. There has been a sudden and enormous 
accretion to the material side of life. The world of 
commerce and industry has expanded with bewildering 
rapidity, the secrets of nature have been penetrated and 
utilized, and what were formerly looked upon as geo- 
graphical and racial barriers have been hurled down 
so that all the material forces of life have been fused 
into a new unity. The forces that have been shaping 
the destiny of men in the modern world have arisen 
without any conscious direction. We are suddenly 
faced with the problem of how to take hold of the 
reins of all this new life so that the material element 
in it may not become the master, but the servant of 
mankind. In the control of life by the spiritual the 
only hope of the world lies. t 

Is there, then, anywhere a faith that reduces spiritual 
control to a working principle of life? If there is, it 
is what the world needs most. We have seen how 
Islam has broken down in face of modern social and 
political development. Of Buddhism it may be said 
that it runs away from life because it has no answer 
to its problems, while Hinduism lacks resistless uplift- 


ing love. These faiths are inadequate to the need of 
170 


THE LEADER IN THE*CONFERICT -171 


the world because of what they lack. It may be said 
that Christianity has not proved adequate. But in 
so far as the Christian Church has failed it is because 
it has not expressed the teaching of its Founder. Chris- 
tianity rests on Jesus Christ. The heart of Chris- 
tianity is that God came down to human need to help 
man up. That is the element lacking in other faiths. 
With great assurance Jesus called Himself the Son of 
God and the Son of Man. He described His mission 
as coming to show the Father. He claimed lordship 
over all life. What manner of man was this? 


I 


This Jesus was at one and the same time a Teacher 
and a Life. He was no mere utterer of precepts to 
be carried out. He lived a life that men might see 
what God is like. He demonstrated the nature of God 
in terms of human nature. Jesus had new views of 
God, and had a new way of doing things because of 
what He believed about God. He taught that God 
was love, God was light, God was life, and that the 
only thing that mattered was that all life should be 
brought into harmony with the Eternal. The bar to 
which He brought every bit of life was the character 
of God, the sanction for everything was the will of 
God, and the dynamic for everything was the power of 
God. The attitude of Jesus to men was as strangely 
new as His thought about God. With Him man was a 
spiritual being. Accordingly, He put unheard-of val- 
ues on human life and revealed great ideals for com- 
monplace folk. To Jesus God was in the very nature 


172 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


of things. His faith in God was the interpretation of 
the Universe. He was what He was because of that 
faith, The wise and prudent men of His time wrote 
it all down as madness—“ He hath a devil.” But His 
madness lay in His steady faith in God. He was really 
the only perfectly sane human being. It was the rest 
of mankind who were mad—mad with the madness of 
refusing to believe in the reality of God. 

These new attitudes marked out Jesus from the men 
of His time. It may be urged that His new teaching 
was just a phase in the history of religion, having no 
relevancy to the world of today. Some would say 
that in any case Christianity has long since become 
essentially an individualistic thing, and that it does 
not touch corporate life. These objections rest on 
the fact that the Church gradually fell into two errors. 
Corporate religion ofttimes degenerated into a force 
for seizing and holding political and_ ecclesiastical 
power. Christianity had certainly degenerated when 
its adherents had no moral fear of exercising arbitrary 
power. At the same time there grew up an intense 
individualism which found expression in monasticism. 
Even after the Reformation in Europe, the reformed 
Churches, with some outstanding exceptions, were 
largely monastic in spirit, even if they were not so in 
form. Religion became a thing of the cloistered indi- 
vidual soul. But spiritual life can never be limited to 
the cloister. Repressed instincts break out in abnor- 
mal forms. Unless there is a perfectly natural expres- 
sion of religion in all life—personal, social, economic, 
and political—it will have unhealthy reactions. There 


THE LEADER IN THE CONFLICT 173 


will be dead wood, fungus-like growth, or misdirected 
energy. This may explain many of the freak religions 
of our own time, much of the dead wood in Christen- 
dom, and certain forms of ill-conceived philanthropy. 

Even if it were true that the Church had failed, 
that settles nothing. It only means that there has been 
surrender to the spirit of the age. The vital question 
is, supposing the Church-were today altogether true to 
itself, could it reassert the domination of the spiritual 
over the material in life? Was Jesus just a dreamer, 
one of those rare souls of whom the soiled world was 
not worthy, a man apart, a mystic? Was His concep- 
tion of God a reality? Was His emphasis on the worth 
of human personality justified? Was this new way of 
life practicable in a sordid world? If not, any Church 
in any age would be tilting at windmills in seeking to 
make effective the spiritual view of life. 


IJ 


Jesus lived out two great affirmatives—“ I believe 
in God” and “I believe in men.” Pharisees of all 
ages, and of every faith, had helped to dim in men’s 
minds all sense of good in the world. He proclaimed 
His unbounded faith in men, and laid bare new riches 
in humanity. He treated men as if He saw in them 
the very image of God. They were thereby lifted into 
a consciousness that God wanted to give new life to a 
dead world, and they imbibed unconsciously new ideals 
for themselves, their friends, and their community. 
They found themselves thinking that no man liveth 


174 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


to himself; they became possessors of a social gospel, 
the enthronement of the spiritual view of man as over 
against everything else. 

Alongside these views of God and man, unworthy 
thoughts died in the hearts and minds of the followers 
of Jesus, and cruel and unjust acts were stayed. He 
was so friendly that almost unconsciously men gave 
Him the inner place in their hearts, and then strange 
things happened. They found that Jesus lived in a real 
world where God was central. They found that God 
thought about men and women just as Jesus did, and 
in this new discovery they turned the world upside 
down. Here was the greatest revolution that had ever 
taken place in the mind of men. They now measured 
life, not by any material measuring rod, but by the 
things of the spirit—self-sacrifice, truth, and love. 
They believed that the real world in which God meant 
men to dwell was the world of love, and that outside of 
it they were in their wrong element. What a message 
for our own time, when the material has come surging 
into life like a flood! Possibly the greatest need of the 
modern world is to bring these vast new material sides 
of life into their true place, not as forces opposed to 
religion and human progress, but as gifts given by 
God Himself to minister to the highest nature and the 
best interests of mankind. 


Til 


The first apparent result of the teaching of Jesus 
was colossal failure. The life that was to be the light 
of men was cruelly and rudely ended. 


' 


Pte DRADER, INYDEE: CONSLICTet75 


They had taken and slain our brother, 
And hanged him on a tree.? 


In that tragedy everything was expressed that could 
be said against the new way of life: the world did its 
worst to incarnate goodness. The crowd had heard 
Him gladly, they had applauded His deeds, and had 
followed Him, until He failed to fall in with their 
narrow, selfish national ambitions, and then—He was 
alone. It seemed as if the face of God Himself was 
hid. 

But there was a startling reaction. The Cross itself 
was turned into a thing of power. It became a great 
creative force from whence flowed life to a weary 
world. Instead of being the symbol of eclipse, it be- 
came a beacon for humanity. It summoned men to 
live, nay to die, that the principles of Jesus might be 
established among mankind. The essential attitude of 
Christianity is a willingness to live or to die—to fling 
away one’s life, to count it as nothing—for the sake of 
some reality other than one’s self: to “ count anything 
a loss compared to the supreme value of knowing Christ 
Jesus,’** 

The early Church in those wonderful days before 
the chilling hand of the world was laid on it, was a 
power for righteousness, If the Church has had days 
of impotence, it has been when the equivalents of the 
Cross have been refused. In the Cross the spiritual 
and the material came into deadly grips, and the Cross 
won the field for the men of that day and of all time. 
In any apparent failure since, it was not the teaching 


1G. K. Chesterton. 
2 Phil. iii: 8, Moffatt’s translation. 


176° THE COST) OR ACNE WiiW ORI 


of Jesus and the power of the Cross that were found 
inadequate to the world’s need; it was the failure to 
apply them. The world needs more than ever men who 
have felt the sorrow and burden of humanity beating 
in upon their souls in the valley of the present humili- 
ation, and who from thence have ascended to the mount 
of transfiguration and seen the Christ. The men who 
can help are those who have looked through the eyes 
of Christ, and, taking up their cross, have borne the 
griefs and carried the sorrows of men. 


IV 


Those who claim that Christ has a doctrine for so- 
ciety are met with the question whether it is to be 
expected that corporate groups, embracing men of all 
faiths and none, can accept and apply such a doctrine. 
It has to be borne in mind that men everywhere are 
units of complex social systems. The largest and most 
far-reaching influences of the mass of men generally 
are exercised as members of a society in which their 
attitudes, sympathies, and actions are expressed cor- 
porately. Groups of human beings incarnate some 
ideal or stand for some interest. These are opposed by 
other groups with differing ideals and interests, and 
this dramatic conflict goes on all the time on a world 
stage. The question whether the principles of Jesus 
can be applied in such circumstances must be faced. 

Men corporately can act up to the highest element in 
the community or down to the lowest. It has been said 
that if five per cent of the people can be made keen 
about anything, it can be accomplished. Certainly the 


Ere MT RAEN CONE IC Ta an 


fortunes of political leaders and policies sometimes de- 
pend on the action or inaction of a much smaller per- 
centage of the electorate. Men are moved gregariously 
for good or evil by a sort of mob instinct. Can Chris- 
tian men in a community induce its movement God- 
wards? The world today more than ever needs a di- 
rected spiritual outlook. Men need to be informed, 
guided, restrained, helped to see issues and conse- 
quences. They can be led to break through ignorance, 
prejudice, and convention. They can be taught to re- 
fuse to acquiesce in anything contrary to the highest 
ideals. 

All of us function below our possibilities. In our 
blind prejudices we even function below our intentions. 
We, who hold in trust for the world the truths incar- 
nated in Jesus, are never working with adequate con- 
ceptions. Our very differences hinder the kingdom. 
The vital alliances of men are in the region of the 
spirit, but often men who could be assimilated into 
One spirit are kept apart and fail to unite for God be- 
cause of divergent mental attitudes or conflicting so- 
cial or political programs. The genius of Christianity 
is incomparably greater than any conceivable doctrine 
or program. The most difficult work is that of the 
group, and yet today it is probably the richest and 
most fruitful for human society. 


V 


The group, however, is not the enemy of the individ- 
ual; it is the crown. It does not supersede him; the 
highest corporate life must rest on individual life. 


P78. PEER COST ORAL EW oWORDE 


Right principles have to root in the soul of the indi- 
vidual man if he is to count for anything in the group. 
The great hindrances to progress in the world today 
are not the gross breaches of the decalogue. They are 
sins of aim, ambition, attitude, sympathy, and temper. 
In order that human society may move Godward, indi- 
vidual men and women will have to crucify many cher- 
ished sins of that kind. We must get rid of the things 
in ourselves that hinder in building the Kingdom of 
God if we are to see men with the eyes of Jesus, and 
if we would today discern between the spiritual and 
the material in life. 

The fact is we are unwilling to be honest with our- 
selves. We refuse to see the things that make us a 
stiff-necked generation. Jesus clearly pointed them 
out. For example, He did not allow any cherished 
personal prejudice or any senseless public opinion to 
mislead Him, nor any passive ignorance or selfish de- 
sire to determine His convictions. He acknowledged 
no closed system of truth and made no fetish of re- 
sistance to change. It is charged against the social 
order of our time that it has captured and destroyed 
the soul of the world. Many good folk deny this, but 
are hurt when it is suggested that the social order 
should be tested by the character of God. Further, 
Jesus had unique courage in action. He never feared 
to attack Pharisaism, exploitation, evil, or injustice. 
He lashed that conspicuous modern sin of discrimina- 
tion against men on the ground of some shibboleth or 
label. He broke through all convention, and shocked 
the orthodoxy of His own time by disregarding the 
common attitude towards feasts, fasts, and ordinances. 


THE LEADER IN THE CONFLICT 9179 


He challenged the current views on oaths, divorce, and 
the Sabbath, and He urged love for Jew, Samaritan, 
Gentile, friend and enemy alike. 

The application today of these teachings, even by a 
comparative few, to the great movements of life we 
have been discussing, would give the leadership the 
world awaits. It would be revolutionary, and it would 
amount to a second Reformation. To discuss these 
principles in all human relationships is not possible 
within the compass of this book. We may, however, 
by way of stimulating thought about them, look more 
closely at what is involved in a right attitude to, say, 
public opinion. 


VI 


We live at a time when it is the special duty of all 
men and women of goodwill to set themselves to the 
task of thinking things through and to oppose firmly 
the tyranny of imposed ideas. The evolution of the 
newspaper press, with its millions of readers, has al- 
most destroyed the art of thinking. To good news- 
papers and great editors the modern world owes much, 
but in our own time the press is not altogether an un- 
mixed blessing. The newspaper habit has created 
subtle mental and ethical codes, and many men would 
as soon laugh in church as run counter to them. Half 
an hour of typical talk in any morning business men’s 
train will abundantly illustrate this. The most casual 
listener can see that much opinion is merely borrowed— 
our favorite newspaper says so, therefore itis so. The 
mental outlook circles round the trivial and the acci- 


ro) 6p THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


dental.. The momentary passions are far more exciting 
and absorbing than general insight into life. 

The crude ideas of some gossip-mongers in the press 
are more demoralizing than is generally supposed. 
Not that the absurd tittle-tattle is accepted as pon- 
tifical, but it produces a looseness of grip on fact, a 
lack of perspective, an inability to sense issues, and an 
absence of responsibility, which make a considerable 
contribution to the mental and moral paralysis of our 
age. Thinking today is largely conditioned by the 
sporadic interest imposed for the moment by the press 
on the restlessness cf the times. There is a famine of 
ordered thought, and therefore an absence of real in- 
sight into the problems of the world. 

Some forms of mental inactivity amount to surren- 
der of gifts and capacities. Sound thinking involves 
infinite trouble in the mastering of facts and in bring- 
ing prepared minds to the interpretation of them. It 
demands a right appreciation of values and of the im- 
plications of each fact. It also involves getting rid 
of presuppositions and prejudices. The temptation is 
to think with the crowd. It is so much easier. It was 
that sort of mentality that sent Jesus to the Cross. 
Without perverted public opinion there could be no 
Pilates. But perverted public opinion can be changed; 
right public opinion can be created. 

We help to make our neighbors’ opinion, good or 
bad. Every man in the street, though he may think 
he has no influence, is contributing all the time to 
“public opinion,” that mightiest weapon of reaction 
and materialism in the world today, but a weapon that 
could be reforged into a flaming sword wherewith to 


THE LEADER IN THE CONFLICT 181 


fight decisive battles for righteousness. The words 
“with all thy mind” should be blazoned on the fore- 
most banner of the army that would fight for spiritual 
ideals. 


VII 


In the conflict between the material and the spiritual 
there is no neutrality. Human life in our land today 
wells forth in three streams, one a comparatively tiny 
stream of the William Careys, the Henry Martyns, the 
David Livingstones, the Mary Slessors, the Bishop 
Pattesons, who go out to non-Christian lands as apos- 
tles of the Church to preach, to teach, to heal, and to 
live in the name of Christ. The second is a much 
larger stream, daily swelling—travelers and traders, 
statesmen and scientists, farmers, engineers, miners and 
settlers—going to the four corners of the earth and 
multiplying contacts with men of all lands and all races. 
The third stream, much the largest, flows on in the 
homeland, the great formative influence of the other 
two, raising or depressing the quality of these by the 
nature of its own life. We all touch earth’s utmost 
bound. And so we go back to the message of the 
World Missionary Conference to the Church in the 
homelands—“ There is an imperative demand that 
national life and influence as a whole be Christianized, 
so that the entire impact, commercial and political, now 
of the West upon the East, and now of the stronger 
races upon the weaker, may confirm and not impair 
the message of the missionary enterprise.” 

If our country would serve the world, the only way 


2 . THE COST OF A\ NEW) WORLD 


open would seem to be the old way of Jesus, testing 
everything by the character of God, and seeing human 
personality as He saw it. Those who attempt that way 
of life will have to say things not generally acceptable, 
do things not generally done, and aim at things outside 
the ken of public opinion. The conflict in which they 
will find themselves as they follow Him, is really be- 
tween the material and the spiritual, the temporal and 
the eternal. 

For Christ that fight meant the Cross. It will mean 
the Cross for those who follow Him. But wherever we 
fight He leads, however long the conflict He is going 
to be victor, and so we confidently adventure for Him. 

If we could help Africa upward, that alone would 
be worth living for. If we could Christianize the im- 
pacts of the western world—commercial, social, educa- 
tional, political—that would be worth living and dying 
for. If we could Christianize race relationships—that 
would be worth dying for twice over. A larger place 
has to be secured for the ideal of cooperation among 
the nations: we have to place deep in the heart of our 
own and other nations a sense of universal fellowship. 
We have to reassert the gospel in all life. It may seem 
madness to attempt such big, apparently impossible 
things. Itis the madness of Jesus Christ. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The Four Gospels 


APPENDIX 


Summary of Recommendations of the Commission 
appointed in June, 1923, by the Municipal Coun- 
cil of Shanghat, to inquire into the conditions of 
child labor in Shanghai and the vicinity. July 
gth, 1924. 


AFTER calling attention to the present international 
position with regard to the regulation of the employ- 
ment of children and young persons, the report sets 
out the special difficulties in the way of the regulation 
of child labor in the Foreign Settlement. These diffi- 
culties are: 


(1) The absence of acentral government with power 
to enforce its decrees throughout the country. 

(2) The circumstance that Shanghai is a treaty port 
and that the “Foreign Settlement’ is managed and 
controlled by a Municipal Council, whose powers are 
strictly limited. 

(3) Absence of birth registration and the conse- 
quent difficulty of proof of the age of children. 

(4) Absence of educational facilities. 

(5) The need for the provision and maintenance of 
a specially trained inspectorate. 

(6) The circumstance that, owing to the present 
economic and social conditions of China, children are 
sent to work by their parents at the earliest age possible. 


In spite of these difficulties, the Commission ex- 
pressed the opinion that the problem must be faced and 
dealt with as far as possible, and that the standard to 

183 


184 THE COST OF A NEW WORLD 


be aimed at and adopted at the earliest practicable mo- 
ment is that set up by the International Labor Con- 
ference at Washington. 

The Commission made various recommendations— 
That the Council should seek power 

(1) “To make and enforce regulations prohibiting 
the employment in factories and industrial undertak- 
ings of children under ten years of age, rising to twelve 
years within four years.’’ The Commission expressed 
itself as satisfied that such prohibition would not “ cause 
financial injury or serious inconvenience to any indus- 
try.” 

(2) To prohibit the employment in factories and 
industrial undertakings of children under fourteen 
years of age for a longer period than twelve hours in 
any period of twenty-four hours, such period of twelve 
hours to include a compulsory rest of one hour. 

(3) The Commission, having reluctantly come to 
the conclusion that it is impracticable immediately to 
prohibit night work for children within the limits of 
the Foreign Settlement while there is no limitation 
outside, did not recommend that the Council should 
immediately seek power to enforce the prohibition of 
employment at night of children who can be employed 
by day, although expressing its opinion that night 
work for young children was a serious evil. 

(4) The Commission went on to recommend that 
every child under fourteen years of age, employed in 
factories and industrial undertakings in the Settlement, 
should be given twenty-four hours’ continuous rest 
from work in at least every fourteen days. 

(5) That the Council should seek power to prohibit 


APPENDIX 185 


the employment of children under fourteen years of 
age in factories and industrial undertakings at any 
dangerous unguarded machine, in any dangerous or 
hazardous place, or at any work likely seriously to 
injure body or health, and to close any dangerous or 
hazardous premises where such children are employed, 
until they are made safe. 

(6) That proof of age might be established either 
(a) by fixing a standard of height, or height and 
weight, or (b) providing . . . that in any prosecution 
until the contrary is proved, the child... is to be 
assumed to be under the particular age if he or she 
so appears to the magistrate. Whilst the majority 
of the Commission favor method (b) the Commission 
recommends that the Council should adopt whichever 
of the two methods is the more suitable from an ad- 
ministrative point of view. 

The recommendations conclude with a suggestion 
that the Council should provide an adequate staff of 
trained men and women for carrying out the duties 
of inspection under the regulations, and with the ob- 
servation that “ reform of present industrial conditions 
and the consequent amelioration of the lot of the 
Chinese child worker cannot be achieved unless it re- 
ceives the moral and active support not only of the. 
foreign residents, but of the vastly greater body of the 
Chinese public.” . 


ake 





INDEX 


AFRIcA— 
Arab slave-trade, 89-90 
Color Bar Bill, 103 
Committee of Civil Research, 95 
education, 124-28 
education in Kenya, expenditure 
on, 106 
Kenya Colony land policy, 97 
labor in South, 102-4 
labor problem in Kenya, 100-1 
land, problem of, 96-100 
materialistic attitude to, 161 
partition of, 92-3 
population, 100-1 
race problem in, 46, 102-4 
Report of East Africa Commis- 
sion, 95, 98, 108; (quoted) 98-9, 
102, 106-7 
slave-trade with America, 22, 88-9 
taxation, 105-7 
Uganda land policy, 98-9 
West African land policy, 99-100 
Aggrey, Kwegyir, 165 
Angora Government, 144-6 


Baptist Missionary Society, 33 
Belgium— 

African possessions, 92-3 
Bolshevism, 84, 162-4 
Buddhism, 170-1 


CALIPHATE— 
abolition by 
145-6 
claimants, 144, 146-7 
India and the, 142 
rallying-point of Islam, 141-3, 148 
Sultan of Turkey and, 142-3 
Canada— 
and North American race problem, 
45-6 
beginning of British dominion, 19- 
20 
Youth movement in, 54 
Cape Colony, capture and purchase, 
20 
Capitalism, rise of modern, 28 
Carey, William, 33-4, 151 
Child labor— 
in China, 73-5, 183-5 
in Japan, 80-1 


Turkey of, 142-4, 


187 


China— 
and Australia, 46 
child labor in, 73-5, 183-5 
Chinese in Africa, 46 
Chinese Women’s Rights League, 
57 
coal and iron, 70 
early trade with West, 64-5 
education, 113-7 
exports, 71-2 
labor conditions, 73-5, 81, 183-5 
manufactures, 68-9 
National Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Education, 115-6 
natural resources, 67-8, 70-1 
* New Thought”? Movement, 57 
railways, 66-7 
rapid industrial growth, 71-2 
shipbuilding, 66 
strikes, 82-3 
trade unions, 82-3 
women in industry, 75-6 
Christianity, expansion of (see Mis- 
sionary work) 
Clive, Lord, 19 
Color Bar Bill, South African, 103 
Court of International Arbitration, 


40 


DEmMocRACY— 
Church and, 26-7, 153 
Guild system and, 163 
Du Bois, W. B., 50 
Duff, Alexander, 117 


East India Company, 19 
and missionary work, 22, 33 
in China, 65 
in India, 64 

Education— 
aim of, 111-2, 123-5, 161 
and governments, 131-2 
anti-foreign feeling, China, 113-7 
by racial contacts, 128-9, 130 
Chinese National Association for 
*» the Advancement of, 115-6 
Christian, 113-7, 118-22, 123 
Christian responsibility for, 131-3 
** conscience clause’ in India, 120 
female, 114, 119, 127, 129-30, 141 


188 


Education—Continued 
language of instruction, 
126 
national aspirations, India, 117-21 
pathway for Christianity, Moslem 
World, 139-40 
prime factor in development of 
primitive peoples, Africa, 123-8 
secular systems, Japan, 121-3 
Europe, expansion of, 18-23 
later colonial systems, 20 
primary motive, 43-4 
Evangelical Revival, 32, 34, 152 


118-9, 


FRANCE— 
African Empire, 92 
early colonial expansion, 19, 20 
later colonial system, 20, 21 
French Revolution, 23-7 


Garvey, Marcus, 50-1 
Germany— 
African possessions, 21, 92-3 
youth movement in, 54-6, 59-60 
Great Britain— 
early colonial expansion, 19-21 
rivalry with France, 19-20 


HacueE Conferences, 40-1 
Hinduism, 170 
Holland— 
colonial empire, 18-9 
Housing conditions— 
Bombay, 75 
effect on health, 28-9 
Great Britain, 28 


Inpra— 

and the Caliphate, 142 

armaments, 79 

beginnings of British supremacy 
IN ULO 

child mortality, 75 

Christian community, 33 

early trade with West, 64 

East India Company, 19, 33, 64 

education, 117-21 

exports, 69 

Factory Act, 80 

Indians in Africa, 46 

Islam, 136-7 

labor conditions in, 75, 80 

manufactures, 68 

missionary work in, 33, 
120-1 

natural resources, 68, 70-1 


117-8, 


INDEX 


India—Continued 
profits of industry, 75, 84 
race problem, 47 
rapid industrial growth, 71 
shipbuilding, 66 
textile development and _ social 
change, 69-70 
trade unions in, 83 
worker’s average income, 83 
youth movement, 58 
Industrial Revolution, 27-31 
Industry in Great Britain, 153 
Industry in the Orient— 
affected by Western industrialism, 
158-9 
competition with the West, 72-3, 
77-8 
exports from India, 69 
exports from Japan, 69 
introduction of Western capital, 72 
labor conditions, 73-7, 79-84 
lack of public opinion, 83-4 
manufactures in China, 68-9 
manufactures in India, 68 
manufactures in Japan, 69 
natural resources, 67-8, 69, 70 
profits, 74-5, 76-7, 84 
rapidity of development, 71-2 
social effects, 69-70, 72, 85 
strikes, 82-3 
trade unions, 82-3 
Infant mortality— 
in Bombay, 75 
in Great Britain, 28, 75 
Intermarriage, racial, 48-9 
Intermixture, racial, 48-9 
Internationalism— 
and Christianity, 41-2, 61 
and World War, 40-2 
and youth movements, 55-6, 58-9 
Court of International Arbitration, 
40 
Hague Conferences, 40-1 
International Labor Office, 80, 8x 
League of Nations, 40, 108-9 
threatened by narrow nationalism, 
4I-2, 154-6 
International Labor Office, 80, 81 
Islam— 
and Christianity, 134-5, 139, 148-9 
and nationalism, 145-8 
Angora, 144-6 
caliphate (see under C) 
solidarity of, 235, 142-3, 147-8 
Western influence on, 136-41 


INDEX 


Jaran— 
and America, 44-5 
armaments, 79 
early contact with West, 65 
education, 121-3 
exports, 69 
Factory Law, 80-1 
labor conditions in, 75-6, 80-1 
manufactures, 69 
natural resources, 67, 69, 70-1 
railways in, 67 
rapid industrial growth, 71-a 
shipbuilding, 66 
strikes, 81-2 
trade unions, 82 
victory over Russia, 39, 44 
women’s labor in, 75-6 
youth movement, 60 

Jones, Dr. Thomas Jesse, 123-5 


Kacawa, T., 80, 82; (quoted) 165 
Koo, T. Z., 165; (quoted) 115 


Lasor conditions in the Orient, 


72-9 

child labor, 73-5, 183-5 

Indian Factory Act, 80 

Japanese Factory Law, 80-1 

lack of public opinion, 83-4 

strikes, 81-2 

trade unions, 82-3 
Lausanne, Treaty of, 142 
League of Nations, 40, 108-9 
Linfield, F. C. (quoted), 106-7 
Loram, C. T. (quoted), 108 
Lugard, Sir Frederick (quoted), 99 


Macautay, Lord, 117-8 
Materialism— 
and internationalism, 154-8 
and nationalism, 155-6 
and youth, 162 
cause of war, 153-4 
in Africa, 161 
in conflict with spiritual (see chaps. 
vii and viii) 
in education, 161 
in industry, 158-60 
in race conflict, 160 
Mathews, Basil (quoted), 52-3, 93 
Missionary work— 
and industrialism in the Orient 
84-5 
and internationalism, 60-1 
and nationalism, 40, 61 


189 


Missionary work—Continued 
and race problem, 51-2, 61 
and youth movements, 58-60, 61 
East India Company and, 22-3, 
33-4 
education, Africa, 123-8 
education, China, 113-4, 115-7 
education, India, 118-9, 120-1 
education, Japan, 121-2, 123 
effect of national life on, 34-6, 
166-7, 181-2 
female education, 129-30 
Moslem world, 139-40, 148-9 
not concurrent with expansion of 
Europe, 21-2 
stimulated by geographical dis- 
covery, 16-7 
World Missionary Conference, 35 
Muir, Ramsay (quoted), 20, 21-2, 
33-4, 92 


Nationat Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Education, Chi- 
nese, 115-6 

Nationalism— 

and Christianity, 
155-8 

and education in India, 118, 120-1 

and internationalism, 41-2, 154-6 

and Pan-Islam, 146, 147-8 

and youth movements, 56-9 

beginnings in Europe, 37-8 

beginnings outside Europe, 39 

in Japan, 39 

Neesima, Joseph, 121-2 

Negroes in North America, 44-5 

Newspapers in Moslem World, 140-1 

“New Thought” Movement of 
China, 57-8 

New Zealand, annexation of, 20 


39°40, 42, 61, 


PHELPS-STOKES, Dr. 
ed), 111 

Plassey, Battle of, 109 

Portugal, colonial empire, 21, 87 

Public opinion, need for right, 179- 
81 


Anson (quot- 


QUEBEC, capture of, 20 


Race Problem— 
Africa, 46, 103-5 
Australia, 46 
Christianity and, 50-2, 61, 159-60 
economic aspect of, 46-7, 48-9 


190 


Race Problem—Continued 

emergence of race consciousness, 

44, 47-8 

India, 47 

intermarriage, 49-50 

intermixture, 49 

materialism and, 160 

North America, 44-6 

numerical supremacy of colored 

races, 47-8 

various attitudes to, 49-50 

white domination, 43-4 
Railways— 

China, 66-7 

India, 66 

Japan, 67 
Report of East Africa Commission, 
95, 98, 108; (quoted) 98-9, 
TO1-2, 106-7 
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 24, 26 
Russia— 

colonial empire, 21 

defeated by Japan, 30, 44 


\ 


SHIPBUILDING— 

China, 66 

India, 66 

Japan, 66 
Singha, Shoran (quoted), 118-9 
Slave-trade— 

abolition of, 34, 89 

Arab, 89 

British share in, 22, 88 

freed slaves in America, 44-5 
Society for the Propagation of the 

Gospel, 32 

Stoddard, Lothrop, 50 
Suez Canal Company, 71 


TRUSTEESHIP, principle of, 22, 23, 
43, 107-8 


INDEX 


Ucanna Agreement, 98-9 
United States of America— 
colonial responsibility, 21 

inception of, 22 
race problem in, 44-6 
youth movement in, 54 


VERSAILLES, Treaty of— 
Labor charter, 79-80, 81 


WANDERVOGEL, 55-6 
War, World, 151-2, 153-4 
and internationalism, 40-2 
changes due to, 16 
effect on race consciousness, 43-4 
Islam and the, 136-7 
Watt, James, 27 
Wesley, John, 32 
Wolfe, General, 20 
W omen— 
education of, 115, 119, 127, 129- 
30, I41 
work, 73, 74, 75, 76, 80-1 
World Missionary Conference, 35-6, 
151-2, 181 
message to the Church, 35-6, 181-2 


YoutH Movements, 52-3 
and Christianity, 58-61 
and materialism, 162 
and nationalism, 57-9 
Britain, 52-4 
China, 57-8 
Germany, 54-6, 59-60 
india, 58 
Japan, 60 
North America, 54 


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